Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing

About the EditorsGaurav Rajauria, Natural Product Chemist, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, IrelandYvonne V. Yuan, Associate Professor, School of Nutrition, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada

• Acknowledgments vAbout the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series xviiList of Contributors xixPreface xxiiiSection I Composition and Extraction Technologies For Algal Bioactives1 Algae: A Functional Food with a Rich History and Future Superfood 3Gaurav Rajauria, and Yvonne V. Yuan1.1 Introduction 31.2 History of Macro- and Microalgae Consumption 41.3 Economic Relevance of Macro- and Microalgae 61.4 Book Objectives 71.5 Book Structure 7References 112 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profiles of Macro- and Microalgae 14K. Suresh Kumar, Sushma Kumari, Kamleshwar Singh, and Pratibha Kushwaha2.1 Introduction 142.2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Biochemical Composition of Micro- and Macroalgae 222.3 Pigments 242.4 Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides 312.5 Fiber Content 362.6 Proteins 382.6.1 Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs) 462.6.2 Phycobiliproteins and Lectins 472.7 Lipids and PUFAs 482.8 Inorganic Elements and Minerals 522.9 Vitamins 562.10 Phenolic Compounds 572.11 Other Compounds 592.12 Conclusion 59References 603 Advances in Drying and Milling Technologies for Algae 72K.Y. Show, Y.G. Yan, and Duu-Jong Lee3.1 Introduction 723.2 Algal Cell Drying Technologies 743.2.1 Solar Drying 743.2.2 Oven Drying 763.2.3 Freeze Drying 773.2.4 Rotary Drum Drying 773.2.5 Incinerator Drying 783.2.6 Spray Drying 783.2.7 Heat Circulation Drying 793.2.8 Microwave Drying 803.2.9 Polypropylene Nonwoven Membrane Drying 803.2.10 Refractance Window® Drying 813.3 Algal Cell Milling Technologies 813.3.1 Vortex-Bead Milling 813.3.2 Shake-Bead Milling 833.3.3 High-Pressure Homogenization 843.3.4 High-Speed Homogenization 863.3.5 Liquid Nitrogen Grinding 863.4 Challenges and Prospects 873.4.1 Processing Technology 873.4.2 Energy Requirement 873.4.3 Product Quality 883.4.4 Environmental Impacts 883.4.5 Future Directions 893.5 Conclusion 89References 894 Recent Advances in the Use of Greener Extraction Technologies for the Recovery of Valuable Bioactive Compounds from Algae 96Marco Garcia-Vaquero, Torres Sweeney, John O’Doherty, and Gaurav Rajauria4.1 Introduction 964.2 Green Extraction Technologies and Applications 984.2.1 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) 984.2.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 1014.2.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 1064.2.4 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 1084.2.5 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 1104.3 Combination Techniques 1124.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 115Acknowledgments 116References 1165 Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 123Calle Niemi and Francesco G. Gentili5.1 Introduction 1235.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Functional Lipids 1245.3 Application of Novel Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 1275.3.1 Algal Cell Disruption Methods 1275.3.2 Novel Extraction Methods 1295.4 Future Recommendations 134Acknowledgments 134References 1356 Extraction Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 141Ariane Tremblay and Lucie Beaulieu6.1 Introduction 1416.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Proteins and Peptides 1446.2.1 Cell Disruption Methods 1446.2.2 Chemical Extraction 1476.2.3 Enzymatic Processes 1486.2.4 Recovery/Enrichment Techniques 1496.2.5 Protein Extraction Methods in Proteomics 1506.3 Emerging Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 1516.3.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 1516.3.2 Pulsed Arc Technology 1516.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 1536.3.4 Sub- and Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 1536.3.5 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) and Ultra-high Pressure Extraction (UHP) 1546.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook 154References 1557 Extraction Technologies to Recover Dietary Polyphenols from Macro- and Microalgae 163M. Shanmugam, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and Gaurav Rajauria7.1 Introduction 1637.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Polyphenols 1647.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) 1657.2.2 Solid-Liquid Extraction (SLE) 1657.3 Innovative Extraction Technologies for Isolation of Polyphenols from Macroalgae 1667.3.1 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) 1667.3.2 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 1697.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 1707.3.4 Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) 1717.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 1747.3.6 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 1767.4 Factors Affecting Extraction 1787.4.1 pH 1797.4.2 Solvents 1807.5 Challenges and Future Recommendations 180Acknowledgments 180References 1818 Extraction Technologies for Bioactive Polysaccharides 188Rashida Qari and Rajeev Ravindran8.1 Introduction 1888.2 Polysaccharides in Seaweed 1898.3 Conventional Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 1928.4 Advanced Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 2008.4.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 2008.4.2 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 2018.4.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 2028.4.4 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 2038.5 Conclusion 203References 203Section II Biological Properties of Algal Derived Compounds9 Potential Biological Activities Associated with Algal Derived Compounds 211Yvonne V. Yuan9.1 Introduction 2119.2 Antioxidant and Anticarcinogenic Activities of Macro- and Microalgal Constituents 2139.2.1 Mycosporine-like Amino Acids (MAAs) 2149.2.2 Scytonemins 2189.2.3 Pterins 2209.2.4 Carotenes and Xanthophylls 2219.3 Antiobesogenic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 2249.4 Antidiabetic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 2249.5 Prebiotic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 2269.6 Immune System Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 2279.7 Conclusion and Future Work 227Acknowledgments 227References 22810 Algal Polysaccharides and Their Biological Properties 231Kit-Leong Cheong, Valentina Jesumani, Bilal Muhammad Khan, Yang Liu, and Hong Du10.1 Introduction 23110.2 Structure of Marine Algae Polysaccharides 23210.2.1 Agar 23410.2.2 Alginates 23410.2.3 Carrageenan 23510.2.4 Cellulose 23510.2.5 Fucoidans 23610.2.6 Laminarans 23710.2.7 Mannans 23810.2.8 Sulfated Rhamnans 23910.2.9 Ulvans 23910.2.10 Xylans 23910.3 Isolation and Purification of Polysaccharides from Algae 24010.3.1 Isolation 24110.3.2 Purification 24610.4 Health-Promoting Activities of MAP 24810.4.1 Antioxidant Activity 24910.4.2 Immunomodulatory Activity 25310.4.3 Anticancer Activity 25610.4.4 Antiviral Activity 25710.4.5 Antihyperlipidemic Activity 26010.4.6 Anticoagulant Activity 26110.4.7 Antimicrobial Activity 26210.5 Conclusion and Future Trends 263References 26411 Marine Algal Derived Phenolic Compounds and their Biological Activities for Medicinal and Cosmetic Applications 278Leslie Gager, Fanny Lalegerie, Solène Connan, and Valérie Stiger-Pouvreau11.1 Introduction 27811.2 Types and Structures of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 28011.2.1 Phenolic Compounds from Marine Cyanobacteria and Microalgae 28111.2.2 Phenolic Compounds from Green and Red Macroalgae 28211.2.3 Phenolic Compounds from Brown Macroalgae 28311.2.4 Variability of Phenolic Content in Space and Time 28411.3 Isolation and Purification of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 28511.3.1 Importance of the Pretreatment of the Biomass 28511.3.2 Extraction Procedures 28611.3.3 Quantification and Analyses of Phenolic Compounds 28911.4 Biological Properties of Phenolic Compounds in Health, Well-Being, and Cosmetics 29011.4.1 Antioxidant Properties 29011.4.2 Antiallergenic and Anti-inflammatory Properties 29311.4.3 Antidiabetic, Antiobesity Properties and Cardiovascular Protection 29611.4.4 Antiproliferative and Anticancer Properties 29811.4.5 Antimicrobial and Antiparasite Properties 29911.4.6 Antiviral Activities 30111.4.7 Mineralogenic and Osteogenic Activities 30211.4.8 Photoprotective Properties 30311.4.9 Biological Properties Specific to Cosmetics or Cosmeceuticals 30411.5 Potential Commercial Applications 30611.5.1 Interest in Health and Nutraceutical Ingredients 30611.5.2 Interest in Cosmetics and Cosmeceutical Ingredients 30711.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 308Acknowledgments 310References 31012 Algal Carotenoids: Recovery and their Potential in Disease Prevention 335V. Sivamurugan, D. Radhika, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and S. Murugesan12.1 Introduction 33512.2 Types and Structure of Carotenoids in Microalgae 33712.2.1 General Occurrence 33712.2.2 Carotenoids Isolated from Seaweeds 33712.3 Isolation and Purification of Carotenoids from Algae 34312.3.1 Conventional SLE 34312.3.2 Microwave and Ultrasound Promoted Extraction 34412.3.3 SCF Extraction 34512.3.4 Adsorbent Assisted Carotenoid Extraction 34612.3.5 Ionic Liquid Mediated Carotenoid Extraction 34712.3.6 Surfactant Assisted Extraction Method 34712.4 Biological Properties of Carotenoids and Possible Health Effects 34912.4.1 Cancer Prevention 34912.4.2 Antioxidant Activities 35012.4.3 Antidiabetic Activity 35112.4.4 Skin Diseases 35212.4.5 Antimicrobial Activities 35212.4.6 Wound Healing 35312.4.7 Miscellaneous Biological Activities 35312.5 Potential Commercial Applications 35412.5.1 Microalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 35512.5.2 Commercial Applications of Astaxanthin and Lutein 35512.5.3 Macroalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 35612.5.4 Nutraceutical Supplements 35712.5.5 Commercial Application of Algal Carotenoids in Feed 35712.6 Conclusions and Future Recommendations 358Acknowledgments 358References 35813 Algal Derived Functional Lipids and their Role in Promoting Health 370Nolwenn Terme, Benoît Chénais, Mathilde Fournière, Nathalie Bourgougnon, and Gilles Bedoux13.1 Introduction 37013.2 Types and Structures of Fatty Acids from Algae 37113.3 Isolation and Purification of FAs from Algae 37813.3.1 Isolation of FAs from Algae 37813.3.2 Purification of FAs from Algae 37813.4 Health Properties of FAs 38413.4.1 Lipids, FAs from Seaweeds and Cosmetic or Cosmeceutical Uses 38413.4.2 Preventive Effects of n-3 PUFAs on CVD and Metabolic Syndrome 38713.4.3 Contribution of n-3 PUFAs in Cancer Risk Factor Prevention and/or Therapy 39013.4.4 Antiviral Activities 39613.5 Potential Commercial Applications 39613.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 397Acknowledgments 398References 39814 Algal Proteins and Peptides: Current Trends and Future Prospects 418Abirami Ramu Ganesan, Shanmugam Munisamy, Rajeev Bhat, Palaniappan Seedevi, Kannan Mohan, and Shingo Matsukawa14.1 Introduction 41814.2 Isolation and Purification of Proteins from Algae 41914.3 Structural Characteristics of Micro- and Macroalgae Peptides 42114.3.1 Structures of Peptides from Microalgae 42114.3.2 Structure of Protein and Peptides from Macroalgae 42314.4 Protein and Peptide Extraction Methods from Algae 42414.4.1 Physical Processes 42414.4.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 42714.4.3 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 42814.4.4 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction 42814.4.5 Pulsed Electric Field 42914.4.6 Microwave Assisted Extraction 42914.4.7 Membrane Filtration 43014.4.8 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 43014.5 Biological Properties of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Possible Health Effects 43114.5.1 Antihypertensive Peptides 43114.5.2 Anticancer Peptides and Proteins 43114.5.3 Antioxidant Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides 43214.5.4 Anti-Inflammatory Peptides 43214.5.5 Algal Proteins and Peptides on Immunomodulation 43314.5.6 Antiobesity Peptides 43414.5.7 Antidiabetic Proteins and Peptides 43414.5.8 Antimicrobial Algal Peptides 43514.5.9 Biological Value of Algal Proteins in Human Nutrition 43514.6 Potential Commercial Applications of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins 43614.6.1 Microalgae Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 43614.6.2 Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 43714.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 437Acknowledgments 438References 43815 Algal Dietary Fiber and its Health Benefits 446Shakeel Ramzan, Muhammad Mushtaq, Sumia Akram, and Ahmad Adnan15.1 Introduction 44615.2 Dietary Fiber 44715.2.1 Algae as a Source of Dietary Fiber 44915.2.2 Marine Algal Polysaccharides 45115.3 Physical Properties of Dietary Fiber (Dispersibility, Viscosity, Binding Capacity, Fermentability) 45215.3.1 Dispersibility 45215.3.2 Viscosity (η) 45315.3.3 Binding Capacity 45415.3.4 Fermentability 45515.4 Therapeutic Effect of Algal Dietary Fibers 45615.4.1 Antihypertensive Effects 45615.4.2 Antiobesity Attributes 45715.4.3 Diabetes Control 45715.5 Potential Commercial Applications 45815.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 459References 460Section III Application of Algae and Algal Components16 Applications of Algae and Algae Extracts in Human Food and Feed 467Sara Amiri Samani, Maryam Jafari, Sayed Mohammad Sahafi, and Shahin Roohinejad16.1 Introduction 46716.2 Nutritional Composition of Algae 46816.3 Application of Whole Algae in Food Products 46816.3.1 Muscle-Based Foods 46816.3.2 Dairy Products 46916.3.3 Cereal-Based Food Products 47116.3.4 Beverages 47316.4 Application of Whole Algae in Feed 47316.5 Algal Extracts as Ingredients in Food Products 47516.5.1 Proteins 47516.5.2 Polysaccharides 47716.5.3 Lipids 47816.5.4 Pigments 47916.5.5 Phenolic Compounds 48016.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 481References 48117 Role of Algal Compounds for Human Health 487Sidra Ehsan, Sumia Akram, Zohaib Saeed, Muhammad Pervaiz, and Muhammad Mushtaq17.1 Introduction 48717.2 Classification of Algae 48817.2.1 Euglenophyta 48817.2.2 Chrysophyta 48917.2.3 Pyrrophyta 48917.2.4 Chlorophyta (Green Algae) 48917.2.5 Rhodophyta (Red Algae) 49017.2.6 Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) 49017.2.7 Xanthophyta 49017.3 Proximate Composition of Algae 49017.3.1 Algal Carbohydrates 49017.3.2 Proteinaceous Biomolecules in Algae 49417.3.3 Algal Lipids 49617.3.4 Algal Minerals 49917.3.5 Algal Vitamins 50017.4 Commercial Importance of Macroalgae in Human Nutrition 500References 50218 Advancements in Algae in Nutraceutical and Functional Food 506Froylán M.E. Escalante and Daniel A. Pérez-Rico18.1 Introduction 50618.2 Algal Derived Molecules 50718.2.1 Carbohydrates 50718.2.2 Lipids 51118.2.3 Proteins 51318.2.4 Pigments 51718.3 Perspectives 524References 52619 Role of Algal Derived Compounds in Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics 537María Lourdes Mourelle, Carmen P. Gómez, and José L. Legido19.1 Introduction 53719.2 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Pharmaceutical Products 53819.2.1 Sulfated Polysaccharides and Other Phycocolloids 53919.2.2 Phlorotannins and Other Polyphenols 54919.2.3 Sterols 55219.2.4 PUFAs and Other Lipidic Compounds 55419.2.5 Carotenoids and Other Pigments 55619.2.6 Peptides and Proteins 55719.2.7 Other Bioactive Compounds 55819.3 Potential Pharmaceutical Formulations from Algae 55919.3.1 Potential Anticancer, Cytotoxic, and Antiproliferative Pharmaceutical Formulations 55919.3.2 Potential Antithrombotic, Anticoagulant, and Antihypertensive Pharmaceutical Formulations 56119.3.3 Potential Antilipidemic and Anticholesterolemic Pharmaceutical Formulations 56219.3.4 Potential Antiobesity and Antidiabetic Pharmaceuticals Formulations 56219.3.5 Potential Antibacterial, Antiviral, and Antifungal Pharmaceutical Formulations 56419.3.6 Potential Immunomodulatory Anti-Inflammatory Pharmaceutical Formulations 56519.3.7 Potential Neuroprotective Pharmaceutical Formulations for Healthy Nervous System 56519.3.8 Other Potential Pharmacological Formulations from Algae 56619.4 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Cosmeceuticals 56719.4.1 Polysaccharides 56819.4.2 Phenols and Polyphenols 57519.4.3 Terpenes 57619.4.4 Pigments 57619.4.5 PUFAs and Other Lipid Compounds 57719.4.6 Proteins and Amino Acids 57719.4.7 Other Compounds 57819.4.8 Algal Extracts 57919.5 Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations from Algae 58019.5.1 Moisturizing Cosmeceutical Formulations 58119.5.2 Antiaging and Photoageing Cosmeceutical Formulations 58119.5.3 Skin Whitening Cosmeceutical Formulations 58219.5.4 Other Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations 58219.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 583References 58420 Economic Status of Seaweed: Production, Consumption, Commercial Applications, Hazards, and Legislations 604Anushree Priyadarshini, Akanksha Priyadarshini, and Gaurav Rajauria20.1 Introduction 60420.2 World Seaweed Utilization 60520.2.1 World Seaweed Production 60520.2.2 Trends in Seaweed Production and Consumption 60520.2.3 Economic Relevance of Seaweed 61020.3 Commercial Usage of Seaweed and Seaweed Functional Components 61120.3.1 Food Applications of Seaweed 61120.3.2 Nonfood Applications of Seaweed 61220.4 Hazards Associated with Seaweed Applications 61220.5 Legislation 61320.6 Conclusion 614References 614Index 617