Radioactive Risk for Humans

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Science (State) in radioecology, Director of Research Emeritus at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books/chapters and 150 communications at international conferences.Jean-Claude Zerbib is an experienced radiation protection engineer. He has managed a laboratory specializing in nuclear analysis and the radiation protection of accelerators. He has also overseen radioactive waste management and measurement and site decontamination. He is the author of more than 140 publications.

• Preface xiiiAcronyms and Abbreviations xxiiiIntroduction xxxiChapter 1 Radioactive Danger 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Radionuclides and radioelements 41.3 Radionuclide-related dangers 51.4 Elements of nuclear physics 61.4.1 Nuclear structure 71.4.2 Electrons 91.4.3 Stability of the atomic nucleus and nuclear reactions 101.4.4 Various types of ionizing radiation 121.4.5 Radiation properties 211.5 References 22Chapter 2 Radioactive Contamination of the Anthroposphere 252.1 Introduction 252.2 Sources of radioactive contamination of the anthroposphere 262.3 Natural radioactive contamination of the anthroposphere 282.3.1 Natural contamination of physical environments 292.3.2 Natural food contamination 312.3.3 Natural contamination of seafood 312.3.4 Natural contamination of buildings 322.4 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination 332.4.1 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination of the physical environment 332.4.2 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination of seafood products 352.4.3 Anthropogenic radioactive contamination of other foods 362.4.4 Radioactive contamination of polluted sites 362.5 Conclusions 392.6 References 40Chapter 3 Human Exposure to Radionuclides 433.1 Introduction 433.2 Types of exposure to ionizing radiation 433.2.1 The distinction between irradiation and contamination 433.2.2 Multiple exposure pathways 453.3 External exposure pathways 453.3.1 External exposure from natural sources 463.3.2 External exposure of artificial origin 473.4 Internal exposure pathways 493.4.1 Radionuclide penetration routes (contamination) 493.4.2 Internal exposures of natural origin 503.4.3 Internal exposure of artificial origin 503.5 Conclusions 503.6 References 51Chapter 4 Radioactive Contamination of Food and Trophic Transfer 534.1 Introduction 534.2 Transfer of radionuclides from food to humans 534.2.1 Human digestion 544.2.2 Distribution of radionuclides in foodstuffs 554.2.3 Bioaccessibility 554.2.4 Bioavailability 564.2.5 Absorption factors during ingestion 574.3 Transfers from the environment to animal products consumed by humans 574.3.1 Food transfer coefficients 574.3.2 The influence of product processing 604.4 Transfers from the environment to plant products consumed by humans 614.5 Transfer from drinking water to humans 634.6 Environmental monitoring of products consumed by humans 644.7 References 66Chapter 5 Human Bioaccumulation of Radionuclides 715.1 Human bioaccumulation of radionuclides 715.1.1 Transmembrane passage 715.1.2 Epithelial and cerebral barriers 735.1.3 Body distribution 745.1.4 Molecular mechanisms 765.1.5 Bioaccumulation of natural radionuclides 765.1.6 Bioaccumulation of artificial radionuclides 785.2 Protecting people from radionuclides 855.2.1 The search for chemical “radioprotectors” 855.2.2 The use of potassium iodide tablets in the event of a nuclear accident 865.2.3 Short and extended containment 875.2.4 Radiation protection is all about prevention 875.3 Therapeutic removal of radionuclides from humans 875.4 Conclusions 895.5 References 90Chapter 6 Estimates of Human Radiation Doses 976.1 Introduction: from exposure to dose 976.2 Expressing exposure 986.2.1 Absorbed dose 986.2.2 Equivalent dose 986.2.3 Effective dose 1006.2.4 Committed dose due to internal contamination 1016.3 Limits to the estimation of effective doses 1056.3.1 Modeling 1056.3.2 Microdistribution 1066.3.3 Transmutation 1066.3.4 Interactions between radiotoxicity and chemical toxicity 1066.3.5 Individual variability 1076.4 Dose rates 1076.5 Occupational doses 1076.6 Collective doses 1086.7 References 109Chapter 7 Estimating Human Radiation Doses 1117.1 Natural external radiation doses 1117.1.1 Telluric exposure 1117.1.2 Cosmic exposure 1137.2 Natural internal radiation doses 1147.2.1 Population exposure to radon 1147.2.2 Internal exposure to natural radionuclides 1197.2.3 Radon exposure of workers 1217.3 Estimates of artificial radiation doses to humans 1217.3.1 External and internal medical exposures 1227.3.2 Exposure due to atmospheric nuclear blasts 1237.3.3 Artificial exposure through food and drink 1237.3.4 Exposure to seafood products 1247.3.5 Occupational exposure 1257.4 Some cases of human exposure 1267.4.1 Guinea pigs 1267.4.2 Estimates of exposure around nuclear facilities 1287.4.3 Estimates of exposure due to fallout from Chernobyl and Fukushima 1287.5 References 129Chapter 8 The Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation at the Molecular and Cellular Level 1338.1 Physico-chemical processes responsible for biological effects 1338.1.1 Physical interactions of ionizing radiation with living matter 1348.1.2 Physico-chemical reactions 1348.2 The effects of ionizing radiation at the molecular level 1358.2.1 The effects of ionizing radiation on DNA 1368.2.2 Epigenetics 1408.3 The effects of ionizing radiation at the sub-cellular level 1438.3.1 The main cell organelles 1438.3.2 The organization of DNA into nucleotides or chromosomes 1438.3.3 The effects of ionizing radiation on genomic instability and mutations 1438.3.4 The appearance of mutations 1448.4 The consequences of irradiation at cellular level 1478.4.1 Cell structure 1478.4.2 The cell cycle 1478.4.3 Cell division 1478.4.4 Targeted effects of ionizing radiation 1498.4.5 Non-targeted effects of ionizing radiation 1498.5 Quantifying the effects of ionizing radiation using biomarkers 1538.5.1 Biomarkers specific to the effects of ionizing radiation 1538.5.2 Biomarkers specific to thyroid cancer 1568.6 Conclusions 1578.7 References 159Chapter 9 Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation at the Individual Level 1679.1 Introduction 1679.1.1 Historical study of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors 1679.1.2 Assessment of doses received by survivors of bombs dropped on Japan 1689.2 The adverse effects of ionizing radiation depend on the age at exposure 1709.2.1 Adverse effects of ionizing radiation on the embryo and fetus 1709.2.2 The harmful effects of ionizing radiation on children 1759.3 Radiation-induced cancers in adults 1849.3.1 The effects of high doses, acute radiation syndrome 1859.3.2 The survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1869.3.3 Radiation-induced cancers as a function of gender 1899.3.4 Effects on red bone marrow 1929.4 Adverse effects of ionizing radiation on different tissues and organs 1939.4.1 Effects on the circulatory system 1959.4.2 Effects on the digestive system 1969.4.3 Effects on the reproductive system 1979.4.4 Effects on the lens 1999.4.5 Effects on the integumentary system 2039.4.6 Effects on the central nervous system 2049.4.7 Effects on the respiratory system 2049.5 The transgenerational effects of ionizing radiation 2059.5.1 Hereditary transmission of genetic information 2059.5.2 Findings on hereditary effects 2069.6 Individual variability in the adverse effects of ionizing radiation 2079.7 Conclusions 2089.7.1 Effects of irradiation in utero and in early childhood 2089.7.2 Effects of radiation on children 2099.7.3 Effects of irradiation at puberty 2109.7.4 Effects of irradiation in adulthood 2109.7.5 Transgenerational effects 2119.8 References 212Chapter 10 Occupational Diseases Caused by Ionizing Radiation 22110.1 History of the first radiation injuries caused by X-rays and radium 22110.1.1 The first X-ray-induced cancers 22210.1.2 A major survey of radiation-induced cancers carried out in 1914 22210.1.3 The first radium-226-induced cancers 22310.2 The creation and difficult development of the occupational disease recognition system 22410.2.1 The long beginnings of the law recognizing occupational diseases in France 22510.2.2 Contemporary knowledge of toxic substances and their deleterious effects 22610.2.3 Implementation of the law on the recognition of occupational diseases in France 22610.2.4 Treatment of radiation-induced diseases 22710.3 Radiation-induced occupational diseases recognized in France since 1948 22810.3.1 The first statistical data on recognized radiation-induced occupational diseases 22810.3.2 Detailed data on recognized radiation-induced occupational diseases 22910.3.3 Comparison of the risk of radiation-induced cancers with the risk of all occupational cancers in France 23110.4 Diseases recognized in Europe 23210.5 Conclusions 23310.6 References 234Chapter 11 The Dose–Response Relationship to the Effects of Ionizing Radiation 23911.1 Introduction: the dose–response relationship 23911.2 Dose–response relationships for high doses 23911.2.1 Survivor studies 24011.2.2 Other studies 24111.3 Dose–response relationships for low doses 24211.3.1 Epidemiological studies 24211.3.2 Controversies over responses to low doses 25611.4 Conclusions 26511.5 References 266Chapter 12 International and French Regulatory Values 27712.1 Introduction 27712.2 International expertise and organization 27712.3 International and European recommendations and their evolution 28012.4 Radiation protection standards and regulatory limits 28112.4.1 Some examples of international radiation protection standards 28112.4.2 European directives and transfer into French law 28212.4.3 Changes in radiation protection standards over time 28312.5 Radionuclide toxicity and radiotoxicity 28312.6 Food standards 28412.7 References 286Chapter 13 General Conclusions and Perspectives 28913.1 Introduction 28913.2 Knowledge of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 29013.2.1 Assured knowledge of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 29013.2.2 Imperfect knowledge of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 29313.2.3 Towards a better understanding of the effects of ionizing radiation on humans 29713.3 Strengths and weaknesses of the radioactive risk assessment method 30213.3.1 Shortcomings in identifying radioactive hazards 30213.3.2 Shortcomings in quantifying radioactive contamination of the anthroposphere 30213.3.3 Shortcomings in the identification of exposure pathways 30313.3.4 Shortcomings in estimating exposure doses 30313.3.5 Gaps in the assessment of adverse effects at various biological levels 30313.3.6 Shortcomings of the dose versus adverse effect relationship 30313.3.7 Shortcomings in the choice of no-adverse-effect values 30413.3.8 Shortcomings in the organization of official standards setting 30413.3.9 Shortcomings in radioactive risk assessment 30413.4 Towards a new approach to estimating radioactive risk 30513.4.1 Limitations of the ICRP approach 30513.4.2 Questionable parameters 30713.4.3 The evolution of the ICRP’s concept of radiation protection 30813.4.4 A new approach to radiation protection 30913.5 Conclusions 31013.6 References 310Glossary 317Index 319