Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 150 publications, 60 books or book chapters and 150 presentations in international conferences.

• Acknowledgments xiAcronyms and Abbreviations xiiiPreface xixChapter 1. Classification of Nuclear Accidents 11.1. Classification of nuclear events: incident or accident? 11.2. Military classification 31.3. Acknowledged, unknown and secret accidents 61.4. Origin and frequency of accidents 81.4.1. Origin of accidents 81.4.2. Frequency of accidents 8Chapter 2. Birth of Atomic Weapons and Their First Atrocious Applications 112.1. Introduction 112.1.1. Discoveries of natural and artificial radioactivity 122.1.2. The discovery of fission and the first nuclear reactor 132.1.3. The A-bomb 142.1.4. French research work before and after World War II 152.2. The explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki: the first appalling applications of fission 162.2.1. The facts 172.2.2. The immediate effects (destruction of buildings) 182.2.3. The environmental consequences 202.2.4. Health consequences 232.2.5. The sociological costs 322.2.6. The economic costs 332.3. Conclusion 35Chapter 3. Atomic Bomb Tests 373.1. Introduction 373.1.1. Test sites 393.1.2. Various types of atomic tests 423.1.3. Safety of atmospheric tests 433.1.4. Various phases of a nuclear explosion 433.2. Atmospheric atomic tests: massive voluntary releases 443.2.1. A-bombs 453.2.2. H-bombs 453.2.3. Production of radionuclides from an explosion 463.2.4. Production of particles and aerosols 473.2.5. Surface deposits 483.2.6. Accidents during atmospheric atomic tests 483.3. Accidents during underground atomic tests 523.3.1. Radioactive releases during underground tests. 523.3.2. Soviet accidents 523.3.3. American accidents 533.3.4. French accidents 533.3.5. British and Chinese accidents 543.4. Environmental consequences 543.4.1. Geomechanical consequences 543.4.2. Environmental contaminations 553.5. Worldwide spatial consequences of atomic tests 673.6. Health consequences 713.6.1. Health consequences to military personnel 723.6.2. Health consequences on workers 733.6.3. Health consequences on local populations 743.6.4. Health consequences on the world population 903.7. Sociological consequences 913.7.1. Taking into account the harm suffered from French tests 913.7.2. The case of American military personnel and civilians 943.7.3. Psychological illnesses related to nuclear explosions 943.8. Economic impact 953.8.1. Compensation for military personnel and local populations 953.8.2. The cost of French tests at Mururoa and Fangataufa 993.9. Conclusion 99Chapter 4. Accidents Involving Deterrence 1014.1. Introduction 1014.1.1. The principle of nuclear deterrence 1014.1.2. Acquisition of the bomb 1034.1.3. From massive retaliation to flexible response 1044.1.4. The second path to nuclear arms 1044.1.5. The situation in the 21st Century 1054.1.6. The main non-proliferation treaties 1064.2. Accidents involving weapons in service 1074.2.1. Accidents involving bombers carrying nuclear weapons 1074.2.2. Accidents involving submarines carrying nuclear weapons 1104.2.3. Missile and rocket accidents 1164.2.4. Accidents during armed missile tests 1174.2.5. Accidents involving power generators and satellites 1194.2.6. Various accidents 1204.3. Consequences for the environment 1214.3.1. Consequences of bomber aircraft accidents 1214.3.2. Consequences of submarine wrecks 1244.3.3. Consequences of submerged military waste 1274.4. Consequences for flora and fauna 1304.5. Consequences on human health 1314.6. Economic consequences: the cost of nuclear deterrence 1344.6.1. The American costs of nuclear deterrence 1344.6.2. French costs of nuclear deterrence 1394.6.3. British costs of nuclear deterrence 1404.6.4. The costs of nuclear deterrence for other nations 1404.7. Strike force in the future 1414.8. Conclusion 144Chapter 5. Accidents Involving the Production of Atomic Weapons 1455.1. Introduction 1455.2. Accidents involving plutonium production units 1515.2.1. The Windscale accident 1515.2.2. The Kyshtym accident at Mayak 1525.2.3. The accident at Tomsk 1545.2.4. The Gore accident 1555.3. Criticality accidents 1555.4. The consequences of an accident on atomic bomb storage sites 1595.5. Environmental impact 1605.5.1. Windscale 1605.5.2. Kyshtym and its surroundings 1615.5.3. Tomsk 1695.5.4. Hanford and Los Alamos 1695.6. Health consequences 1705.6.1. Windscale 1705.6.2. Kyshtym 1725.6.3. Tomsk 1795.6.4. Gore 1795.7. Costs of weapons production plants 1805.8. Conclusion 182Chapter 6. Nuclear Warfare 1856.1. Introduction 1856.2. Humanity and the legitimacy of a nuclear war 1866.3. The risks of a nuclear war 1876.3.1. Nuclear war has not taken place… but it is possible 1876.3.2. International crises and moments of senseless escalation 1886.3.3. Accidents that may trigger nuclear war 1906.3.4. False alarms that may trigger nuclear war 1916.3.5. Geopolitics and nuclear war 1926.4. How to avoid nuclear war 1946.4.1. Increased awareness and establishment of peace movements 1946.4.2. The Stockholm Appeal 1956.4.3. Limiting those that possess the bomb 1966.4.4. Towards a new treaty for outlawing nuclear weapons? 1966.4.5. Peace movements 1976.5. Scenarios of nuclear war 1986.6. The environmental impact of nuclear war 1996.6.1. Large-scale fires and smoke 2006.6.2. Dust 2016.6.3. Radioactive fallout 2016.6.4. Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and increase in UV rays 2016.6.5. Oxygen losses and increases in carbon dioxide 2026.6.6. Reductions in light and temperatures 2026.6.7. Nuclear winter 2036.6.8. Radioactive contamination 2046.7. Ecological impact of nuclear war 2056.8. Impact of nuclear war on health 2066.9. Expenditure on dismantling and destroying nuclear weapons in the United States 2076.10. Conclusion 211Conclusion 213References 215Index 247

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 150 publications, 60 books or book chapters and 150 presentations in international conferences.

• Acknowledgments xiAcronyms and Abbreviations xiiiPreface xixChapter 1. Classification of Nuclear Accidents 11.1. Classification of nuclear events: incident or accident? 11.2. Military classification 31.3. Acknowledged, unknown and secret accidents 61.4. Origin and frequency of accidents 81.4.1. Origin of accidents 81.4.2. Frequency of accidents 8Chapter 2. Birth of Atomic Weapons and Their First Atrocious Applications 112.1. Introduction 112.1.1. Discoveries of natural and artificial radioactivity 122.1.2. The discovery of fission and the first nuclear reactor 132.1.3. The A-bomb 142.1.4. French research work before and after World War II 152.2. The explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki: the first appalling applications of fission 162.2.1. The facts 172.2.2. The immediate effects (destruction of buildings) 182.2.3. The environmental consequences 202.2.4. Health consequences 232.2.5. The sociological costs 322.2.6. The economic costs 332.3. Conclusion 35Chapter 3. Atomic Bomb Tests 373.1. Introduction 373.1.1. Test sites 393.1.2. Various types of atomic tests 423.1.3. Safety of atmospheric tests 433.1.4. Various phases of a nuclear explosion 433.2. Atmospheric atomic tests: massive voluntary releases 443.2.1. A-bombs 453.2.2. H-bombs 453.2.3. Production of radionuclides from an explosion 463.2.4. Production of particles and aerosols 473.2.5. Surface deposits 483.2.6. Accidents during atmospheric atomic tests 483.3. Accidents during underground atomic tests 523.3.1. Radioactive releases during underground tests. 523.3.2. Soviet accidents 523.3.3. American accidents 533.3.4. French accidents 533.3.5. British and Chinese accidents 543.4. Environmental consequences 543.4.1. Geomechanical consequences 543.4.2. Environmental contaminations 553.5. Worldwide spatial consequences of atomic tests 673.6. Health consequences 713.6.1. Health consequences to military personnel 723.6.2. Health consequences on workers 733.6.3. Health consequences on local populations 743.6.4. Health consequences on the world population 903.7. Sociological consequences 913.7.1. Taking into account the harm suffered from French tests 913.7.2. The case of American military personnel and civilians 943.7.3. Psychological illnesses related to nuclear explosions 943.8. Economic impact 953.8.1. Compensation for military personnel and local populations 953.8.2. The cost of French tests at Mururoa and Fangataufa 993.9. Conclusion 99Chapter 4. Accidents Involving Deterrence 1014.1. Introduction 1014.1.1. The principle of nuclear deterrence 1014.1.2. Acquisition of the bomb 1034.1.3. From massive retaliation to flexible response 1044.1.4. The second path to nuclear arms 1044.1.5. The situation in the 21st Century 1054.1.6. The main non-proliferation treaties 1064.2. Accidents involving weapons in service 1074.2.1. Accidents involving bombers carrying nuclear weapons 1074.2.2. Accidents involving submarines carrying nuclear weapons 1104.2.3. Missile and rocket accidents 1164.2.4. Accidents during armed missile tests 1174.2.5. Accidents involving power generators and satellites 1194.2.6. Various accidents 1204.3. Consequences for the environment 1214.3.1. Consequences of bomber aircraft accidents 1214.3.2. Consequences of submarine wrecks 1244.3.3. Consequences of submerged military waste 1274.4. Consequences for flora and fauna 1304.5. Consequences on human health 1314.6. Economic consequences: the cost of nuclear deterrence 1344.6.1. The American costs of nuclear deterrence 1344.6.2. French costs of nuclear deterrence 1394.6.3. British costs of nuclear deterrence 1404.6.4. The costs of nuclear deterrence for other nations 1404.7. Strike force in the future 1414.8. Conclusion 144Chapter 5. Accidents Involving the Production of Atomic Weapons 1455.1. Introduction 1455.2. Accidents involving plutonium production units 1515.2.1. The Windscale accident 1515.2.2. The Kyshtym accident at Mayak 1525.2.3. The accident at Tomsk 1545.2.4. The Gore accident 1555.3. Criticality accidents 1555.4. The consequences of an accident on atomic bomb storage sites 1595.5. Environmental impact 1605.5.1. Windscale 1605.5.2. Kyshtym and its surroundings 1615.5.3. Tomsk 1695.5.4. Hanford and Los Alamos 1695.6. Health consequences 1705.6.1. Windscale 1705.6.2. Kyshtym 1725.6.3. Tomsk 1795.6.4. Gore 1795.7. Costs of weapons production plants 1805.8. Conclusion 182Chapter 6. Nuclear Warfare 1856.1. Introduction 1856.2. Humanity and the legitimacy of a nuclear war 1866.3. The risks of a nuclear war 1876.3.1. Nuclear war has not taken place… but it is possible 1876.3.2. International crises and moments of senseless escalation 1886.3.3. Accidents that may trigger nuclear war 1906.3.4. False alarms that may trigger nuclear war 1916.3.5. Geopolitics and nuclear war 1926.4. How to avoid nuclear war 1946.4.1. Increased awareness and establishment of peace movements 1946.4.2. The Stockholm Appeal 1956.4.3. Limiting those that possess the bomb 1966.4.4. Towards a new treaty for outlawing nuclear weapons? 1966.4.5. Peace movements 1976.5. Scenarios of nuclear war 1986.6. The environmental impact of nuclear war 1996.6.1. Large-scale fires and smoke 2006.6.2. Dust 2016.6.3. Radioactive fallout 2016.6.4. Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and increase in UV rays 2016.6.5. Oxygen losses and increases in carbon dioxide 2026.6.6. Reductions in light and temperatures 2026.6.7. Nuclear winter 2036.6.8. Radioactive contamination 2046.7. Ecological impact of nuclear war 2056.8. Impact of nuclear war on health 2066.9. Expenditure on dismantling and destroying nuclear weapons in the United States 2076.10. Conclusion 211Conclusion 213References 215Index 247

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 150 publications, 60 books or book chapters and 150 presentations in international conferences.

• Acknowledgments xiAcronyms and Abbreviations xiiiPreface xixChapter 1. Classification of Nuclear Accidents 11.1. Classification of nuclear events: incident or accident? 11.2. Military classification 31.3. Acknowledged, unknown and secret accidents 61.4. Origin and frequency of accidents 81.4.1. Origin of accidents 81.4.2. Frequency of accidents 8Chapter 2. Birth of Atomic Weapons and Their First Atrocious Applications 112.1. Introduction 112.1.1. Discoveries of natural and artificial radioactivity 122.1.2. The discovery of fission and the first nuclear reactor 132.1.3. The A-bomb 142.1.4. French research work before and after World War II 152.2. The explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki: the first appalling applications of fission 162.2.1. The facts 172.2.2. The immediate effects (destruction of buildings) 182.2.3. The environmental consequences 202.2.4. Health consequences 232.2.5. The sociological costs 322.2.6. The economic costs 332.3. Conclusion 35Chapter 3. Atomic Bomb Tests 373.1. Introduction 373.1.1. Test sites 393.1.2. Various types of atomic tests 423.1.3. Safety of atmospheric tests 433.1.4. Various phases of a nuclear explosion 433.2. Atmospheric atomic tests: massive voluntary releases 443.2.1. A-bombs 453.2.2. H-bombs 453.2.3. Production of radionuclides from an explosion 463.2.4. Production of particles and aerosols 473.2.5. Surface deposits 483.2.6. Accidents during atmospheric atomic tests 483.3. Accidents during underground atomic tests 523.3.1. Radioactive releases during underground tests. 523.3.2. Soviet accidents 523.3.3. American accidents 533.3.4. French accidents 533.3.5. British and Chinese accidents 543.4. Environmental consequences 543.4.1. Geomechanical consequences 543.4.2. Environmental contaminations 553.5. Worldwide spatial consequences of atomic tests 673.6. Health consequences 713.6.1. Health consequences to military personnel 723.6.2. Health consequences on workers 733.6.3. Health consequences on local populations 743.6.4. Health consequences on the world population 903.7. Sociological consequences 913.7.1. Taking into account the harm suffered from French tests 913.7.2. The case of American military personnel and civilians 943.7.3. Psychological illnesses related to nuclear explosions 943.8. Economic impact 953.8.1. Compensation for military personnel and local populations 953.8.2. The cost of French tests at Mururoa and Fangataufa 993.9. Conclusion 99Chapter 4. Accidents Involving Deterrence 1014.1. Introduction 1014.1.1. The principle of nuclear deterrence 1014.1.2. Acquisition of the bomb 1034.1.3. From massive retaliation to flexible response 1044.1.4. The second path to nuclear arms 1044.1.5. The situation in the 21st Century 1054.1.6. The main non-proliferation treaties 1064.2. Accidents involving weapons in service 1074.2.1. Accidents involving bombers carrying nuclear weapons 1074.2.2. Accidents involving submarines carrying nuclear weapons 1104.2.3. Missile and rocket accidents 1164.2.4. Accidents during armed missile tests 1174.2.5. Accidents involving power generators and satellites 1194.2.6. Various accidents 1204.3. Consequences for the environment 1214.3.1. Consequences of bomber aircraft accidents 1214.3.2. Consequences of submarine wrecks 1244.3.3. Consequences of submerged military waste 1274.4. Consequences for flora and fauna 1304.5. Consequences on human health 1314.6. Economic consequences: the cost of nuclear deterrence 1344.6.1. The American costs of nuclear deterrence 1344.6.2. French costs of nuclear deterrence 1394.6.3. British costs of nuclear deterrence 1404.6.4. The costs of nuclear deterrence for other nations 1404.7. Strike force in the future 1414.8. Conclusion 144Chapter 5. Accidents Involving the Production of Atomic Weapons 1455.1. Introduction 1455.2. Accidents involving plutonium production units 1515.2.1. The Windscale accident 1515.2.2. The Kyshtym accident at Mayak 1525.2.3. The accident at Tomsk 1545.2.4. The Gore accident 1555.3. Criticality accidents 1555.4. The consequences of an accident on atomic bomb storage sites 1595.5. Environmental impact 1605.5.1. Windscale 1605.5.2. Kyshtym and its surroundings 1615.5.3. Tomsk 1695.5.4. Hanford and Los Alamos 1695.6. Health consequences 1705.6.1. Windscale 1705.6.2. Kyshtym 1725.6.3. Tomsk 1795.6.4. Gore 1795.7. Costs of weapons production plants 1805.8. Conclusion 182Chapter 6. Nuclear Warfare 1856.1. Introduction 1856.2. Humanity and the legitimacy of a nuclear war 1866.3. The risks of a nuclear war 1876.3.1. Nuclear war has not taken place… but it is possible 1876.3.2. International crises and moments of senseless escalation 1886.3.3. Accidents that may trigger nuclear war 1906.3.4. False alarms that may trigger nuclear war 1916.3.5. Geopolitics and nuclear war 1926.4. How to avoid nuclear war 1946.4.1. Increased awareness and establishment of peace movements 1946.4.2. The Stockholm Appeal 1956.4.3. Limiting those that possess the bomb 1966.4.4. Towards a new treaty for outlawing nuclear weapons? 1966.4.5. Peace movements 1976.5. Scenarios of nuclear war 1986.6. The environmental impact of nuclear war 1996.6.1. Large-scale fires and smoke 2006.6.2. Dust 2016.6.3. Radioactive fallout 2016.6.4. Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and increase in UV rays 2016.6.5. Oxygen losses and increases in carbon dioxide 2026.6.6. Reductions in light and temperatures 2026.6.7. Nuclear winter 2036.6.8. Radioactive contamination 2046.7. Ecological impact of nuclear war 2056.8. Impact of nuclear war on health 2066.9. Expenditure on dismantling and destroying nuclear weapons in the United States 2076.10. Conclusion 211Conclusion 213References 215Index 247