Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books or book chapters and 150 presentations at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiChapter 1 Nuclear Non-Proliferation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The first countries to acquire the atomic bomb 21.3 The NPT 41.3.1 The functioning of the Treaty 51.3.2 Revision of the NPT 51.3.3 Successes of the NPT 61.3.4 Failures of the NPT 71.3.5 Future nuclear-weapon states 101.4 Other nuclear non-proliferation treaties 101.4.1 The CTBT Treaty 101.4.2 The TPNW 111.4.3 The Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT) 121.4.4 Regional disarmament treaties 141.5 Disarmament controls 151.5.1 Principle and practice of disarmament controls 151.5.2 NPT controls 171.6 Actions of NGOs 251.6.1 The main actions of NGOs for disarmament 261.6.2 NGOs and the Nobel Peace Prize 281.7 The military denuclearization of a state 291.7.1 South Africa: the example of the complete denuclearization of a country 291.7.2 Other states that have renounced nuclear weapons 311.8 Conclusions 32Chapter 2 Disarmament of Atomic Weapons 352.1 Introduction 352.2 Limitations on the number of nuclear weapons 352.2.1 Bilateral disarmament agreements and treaties between the Americans and Soviets 362.2.2 Delivery of nuclear supplies 392.2.3 Controlling the delivery systems of atomic weapons 392.2.4 The Hague Code of Conduct (HCoC) 402.2.5 The disarmament of France 422.3 Nuclear deterrent forces 432.3.1 Land forces of nuclear deterrence 452.3.2 Air forces of nuclear deterrence 462.3.3 Oceanic nuclear deterrent forces 482.3.4 Nuclear weapon manufacturing sites 502.3.5 Nuclear weapon deployment and storage sites 532.3.6 The state of stocks of nuclear weapons and fissile materials 562.4 Disarmament controls 612.4.1 Controls of the CTBT 612.4.2 Bilateral controls 622.5 Conclusions 62Chapter 3 International Recommendations and National Policies in Decommissioning 653.1 Introduction 653.1.1 Definitions of terms for end-of-life operations of a BNI 653.1.2 Stages in the life of a BNI 663.2 General principles of decommissioning and dismantling 673.2.1 The necessity and goals of decommissioning 673.2.2 IAEA recommendations 683.2.3 NEA work and publications 703.2.4 Decommissioning and dismantling strategies 703.2.5 Decommissioning planning 743.2.6 Duration of decommissioning 773.3 Lessons from the past 783.3.1 Experience in decommissioning 793.3.2 Structuring and organization of companies 803.3.3 Ongoing decommissioning challenges 803.3.4 Management of the unexpected in dismantling 803.3.5 The transmission of information 803.4 The decommissioning and dismantling policies of the various states 813.4.1 US policy 823.4.2 Russia’s policy 833.4.3 Germany’s policy 853.4.4 UK policy 863.4.5 France’s policy 883.4.6 China 933.4.7 Sweden 933.4.8 Japan 953.4.9 Other states 953.5 Conclusions 99Chapter 4 Procedures and Technologies Involved in Decommissioning 1014.1 Introduction 1014.2 The cost of dismantling 1014.2.1 International recommendations 1024.2.2 The American example 1054.2.3 The British example 1064.2.4 The French example 1084.2.5 The Russian example 1094.3 The production of radioactive waste 1094.3.1 The channels planned for the management of radioactive waste 1104.3.2 Material release thresholds 1124.4 The environmental and health risks of dismantling 1144.4.1 Assessment of environmental and health risks during decommissioning 1154.4.2 Environmental impact studies 1174.4.3 Total remediation of the site 1194.4.4 Health impacts of decommissioning 1234.4.5 Social impacts of decommissioning 1244.4.6 Regulatory provisions 1264.5 Nuclear decommissioning techniques 1274.5.1 Cutting techniques 1274.5.2 Decontamination techniques 1284.5.3 Automation or remote operation 1294.5.4 Remediation processes for civil engineering structures 1294.5.5 The main demolition techniques 1304.6 Technical innovations in nuclear decommissioning 1314.6.1 Research and development policies in the field of decommissioning 1314.6.2 Industrial organization in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1334.6.3 Management of radioactive contamination 1344.6.4 Numerical simulations in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1364.6.5 Cutting of large parts 1394.6.6 Automation in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1404.6.7 Estimating radiation doses 1424.7 Conclusions 142Chapter 5 The Dismantling of Military Nuclear Facilities 1455.1 Introduction 1455.2 The decommissioning of military plants at the beginning of the nuclear fuel cycle 1465.2.1 The decommissioning of military uranium enrichment plants 1465.2.2 Decommissioning of plutonium-producing reactors 1505.2.3 Decommissioning of tritium-producing reactors 1575.2.4 Decommissioning of fissile fuel fabrication plants 1585.3 The decommissioning of military spent fuel reprocessing plants 1595.3.1 The dismantling of US reprocessing plants 1605.3.2 The UP1 plant in Marcoule, France 1605.3.3 The dismantling of other military reprocessing plants around the world 1635.4 Decommissioning and decontamination of military sites 1635.4.1 US military facilities 1645.4.2 The dismantling of Soviet and Russian military nuclear facilities 1745.4.3 The dismantling of French military nuclear facilities 1765.4.4 The decontamination of the British site of Maralinga 1785.5 The destruction of atomic weapons and their vectors 1785.5.1 The deconstruction of atomic bombs 1785.5.2 American disarmament 1795.5.3 Russian disarmament: international collaboration 1805.5.4 Disarmament of submarines and other military nuclear vessels 1815.5.5 Denuclearization of rocket bases 1905.6 Conclusions 191Chapter 6 The Dismantling of Electronuclear Reactors 1936.1 Introduction 1936.1.1 The various types of electronuclear reactors 1946.2 The dismantling of graphite-moderated reactors 1956.2.1 Decommissioning of French nuclear power reactors (UNGG) 1956.2.2 The dismantling of British reactors 2006.2.3 The dismantling of the RMBK sector 2026.3 The dismantling of the pressurized water system (PWR) 2036.3.1 The dismantling of German reactors 2046.3.2 The dismantling of American reactors 2056.3.3 The dismantling of French reactors 2066.3.4 Reactor decommissioning in other countries 2076.3.5 The dismantling of WWER reactors 2076.4 Dismantling the heavy water sector 2106.5 Dismantling of the boiling water reactor sector 2126.6 Dismantling following a nuclear accident 2176.6.1 IAEA and NEA recommendations 2206.6.2 The dismantling of Three Mile Island 2216.6.3 The dismantling of Chernobyl 2226.6.4 The decommissioning of Fukushima 2236.6.5 Decommissioning of other damaged nuclear facilities 2246.7 Future reactor shutdowns 2256.8 Conclusions 227Chapter 7 The Decommissioning of Research Reactors and Other Basic Nuclear Facilities 2297.1 Introduction 2297.2 The dismantling of experimental reactors around the world 2307.2.1 The main roles of experimental reactors 2307.2.2 The global overview of experimental reactors 2317.2.3 The main types of experimental reactors 2337.2.4 Major incidents and accidents involving research reactors 2357.2.5 Cost 2367.2.6 Some examples of the decommissioning of experimental reactors 2367.2.7 Heavy water research reactors (HWRR) 2387.2.8 Fast neutron reactors 2407.2.9 Other research reactors 2407.3 Decommissioning and dismantling of fourth-generation reactors 2427.3.1 The dismantling of the fast neutron reactor (FNR) industry 2437.3.2 High-temperature nuclear reactors 2477.3.3 The other fourth-generation sectors 2487.4 The dismantling of first-generation prototype reactors 2497.4.1 PWR reactors 2507.4.2 The dismantling of the boiling water reactor (BWR) process 2527.4.3 The dismantling of the gas reactor sector (AGR) 2527.4.4 Dismantling the heavy water industry 2537.4.5 The dismantling of prototype reactors from various sectors 2557.5 The dismantling of basic nuclear fuel cycle facilities 2567.5.1 The dismantling of extraction mines 2567.5.2 The dismantling of enrichment plants 2577.5.3 The dismantling of conversion and manufacturing plants 2597.5.4 The dismantling of reprocessing plants 2607.6 Decommissioning of other basic nuclear facilities 2637.6.1 The centers of nuclear studies 2637.6.2 The centers of industrial operation 2667.6.3 Service facilities 2697.6.4 Interim nuclear waste storage centers 2707.6.5 Other BNIs in the dismantling stage 2717.7 Conclusions 273General Conclusions 275List of Acronyms 287References 295Index 333

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books or book chapters and 150 presentations at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiChapter 1 Nuclear Non-Proliferation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The first countries to acquire the atomic bomb 21.3 The NPT 41.3.1 The functioning of the Treaty 51.3.2 Revision of the NPT 51.3.3 Successes of the NPT 61.3.4 Failures of the NPT 71.3.5 Future nuclear-weapon states 101.4 Other nuclear non-proliferation treaties 101.4.1 The CTBT Treaty 101.4.2 The TPNW 111.4.3 The Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT) 121.4.4 Regional disarmament treaties 141.5 Disarmament controls 151.5.1 Principle and practice of disarmament controls 151.5.2 NPT controls 171.6 Actions of NGOs 251.6.1 The main actions of NGOs for disarmament 261.6.2 NGOs and the Nobel Peace Prize 281.7 The military denuclearization of a state 291.7.1 South Africa: the example of the complete denuclearization of a country 291.7.2 Other states that have renounced nuclear weapons 311.8 Conclusions 32Chapter 2 Disarmament of Atomic Weapons 352.1 Introduction 352.2 Limitations on the number of nuclear weapons 352.2.1 Bilateral disarmament agreements and treaties between the Americans and Soviets 362.2.2 Delivery of nuclear supplies 392.2.3 Controlling the delivery systems of atomic weapons 392.2.4 The Hague Code of Conduct (HCoC) 402.2.5 The disarmament of France 422.3 Nuclear deterrent forces 432.3.1 Land forces of nuclear deterrence 452.3.2 Air forces of nuclear deterrence 462.3.3 Oceanic nuclear deterrent forces 482.3.4 Nuclear weapon manufacturing sites 502.3.5 Nuclear weapon deployment and storage sites 532.3.6 The state of stocks of nuclear weapons and fissile materials 562.4 Disarmament controls 612.4.1 Controls of the CTBT 612.4.2 Bilateral controls 622.5 Conclusions 62Chapter 3 International Recommendations and National Policies in Decommissioning 653.1 Introduction 653.1.1 Definitions of terms for end-of-life operations of a BNI 653.1.2 Stages in the life of a BNI 663.2 General principles of decommissioning and dismantling 673.2.1 The necessity and goals of decommissioning 673.2.2 IAEA recommendations 683.2.3 NEA work and publications 703.2.4 Decommissioning and dismantling strategies 703.2.5 Decommissioning planning 743.2.6 Duration of decommissioning 773.3 Lessons from the past 783.3.1 Experience in decommissioning 793.3.2 Structuring and organization of companies 803.3.3 Ongoing decommissioning challenges 803.3.4 Management of the unexpected in dismantling 803.3.5 The transmission of information 803.4 The decommissioning and dismantling policies of the various states 813.4.1 US policy 823.4.2 Russia’s policy 833.4.3 Germany’s policy 853.4.4 UK policy 863.4.5 France’s policy 883.4.6 China 933.4.7 Sweden 933.4.8 Japan 953.4.9 Other states 953.5 Conclusions 99Chapter 4 Procedures and Technologies Involved in Decommissioning 1014.1 Introduction 1014.2 The cost of dismantling 1014.2.1 International recommendations 1024.2.2 The American example 1054.2.3 The British example 1064.2.4 The French example 1084.2.5 The Russian example 1094.3 The production of radioactive waste 1094.3.1 The channels planned for the management of radioactive waste 1104.3.2 Material release thresholds 1124.4 The environmental and health risks of dismantling 1144.4.1 Assessment of environmental and health risks during decommissioning 1154.4.2 Environmental impact studies 1174.4.3 Total remediation of the site 1194.4.4 Health impacts of decommissioning 1234.4.5 Social impacts of decommissioning 1244.4.6 Regulatory provisions 1264.5 Nuclear decommissioning techniques 1274.5.1 Cutting techniques 1274.5.2 Decontamination techniques 1284.5.3 Automation or remote operation 1294.5.4 Remediation processes for civil engineering structures 1294.5.5 The main demolition techniques 1304.6 Technical innovations in nuclear decommissioning 1314.6.1 Research and development policies in the field of decommissioning 1314.6.2 Industrial organization in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1334.6.3 Management of radioactive contamination 1344.6.4 Numerical simulations in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1364.6.5 Cutting of large parts 1394.6.6 Automation in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1404.6.7 Estimating radiation doses 1424.7 Conclusions 142Chapter 5 The Dismantling of Military Nuclear Facilities 1455.1 Introduction 1455.2 The decommissioning of military plants at the beginning of the nuclear fuel cycle 1465.2.1 The decommissioning of military uranium enrichment plants 1465.2.2 Decommissioning of plutonium-producing reactors 1505.2.3 Decommissioning of tritium-producing reactors 1575.2.4 Decommissioning of fissile fuel fabrication plants 1585.3 The decommissioning of military spent fuel reprocessing plants 1595.3.1 The dismantling of US reprocessing plants 1605.3.2 The UP1 plant in Marcoule, France 1605.3.3 The dismantling of other military reprocessing plants around the world 1635.4 Decommissioning and decontamination of military sites 1635.4.1 US military facilities 1645.4.2 The dismantling of Soviet and Russian military nuclear facilities 1745.4.3 The dismantling of French military nuclear facilities 1765.4.4 The decontamination of the British site of Maralinga 1785.5 The destruction of atomic weapons and their vectors 1785.5.1 The deconstruction of atomic bombs 1785.5.2 American disarmament 1795.5.3 Russian disarmament: international collaboration 1805.5.4 Disarmament of submarines and other military nuclear vessels 1815.5.5 Denuclearization of rocket bases 1905.6 Conclusions 191Chapter 6 The Dismantling of Electronuclear Reactors 1936.1 Introduction 1936.1.1 The various types of electronuclear reactors 1946.2 The dismantling of graphite-moderated reactors 1956.2.1 Decommissioning of French nuclear power reactors (UNGG) 1956.2.2 The dismantling of British reactors 2006.2.3 The dismantling of the RMBK sector 2026.3 The dismantling of the pressurized water system (PWR) 2036.3.1 The dismantling of German reactors 2046.3.2 The dismantling of American reactors 2056.3.3 The dismantling of French reactors 2066.3.4 Reactor decommissioning in other countries 2076.3.5 The dismantling of WWER reactors 2076.4 Dismantling the heavy water sector 2106.5 Dismantling of the boiling water reactor sector 2126.6 Dismantling following a nuclear accident 2176.6.1 IAEA and NEA recommendations 2206.6.2 The dismantling of Three Mile Island 2216.6.3 The dismantling of Chernobyl 2226.6.4 The decommissioning of Fukushima 2236.6.5 Decommissioning of other damaged nuclear facilities 2246.7 Future reactor shutdowns 2256.8 Conclusions 227Chapter 7 The Decommissioning of Research Reactors and Other Basic Nuclear Facilities 2297.1 Introduction 2297.2 The dismantling of experimental reactors around the world 2307.2.1 The main roles of experimental reactors 2307.2.2 The global overview of experimental reactors 2317.2.3 The main types of experimental reactors 2337.2.4 Major incidents and accidents involving research reactors 2357.2.5 Cost 2367.2.6 Some examples of the decommissioning of experimental reactors 2367.2.7 Heavy water research reactors (HWRR) 2387.2.8 Fast neutron reactors 2407.2.9 Other research reactors 2407.3 Decommissioning and dismantling of fourth-generation reactors 2427.3.1 The dismantling of the fast neutron reactor (FNR) industry 2437.3.2 High-temperature nuclear reactors 2477.3.3 The other fourth-generation sectors 2487.4 The dismantling of first-generation prototype reactors 2497.4.1 PWR reactors 2507.4.2 The dismantling of the boiling water reactor (BWR) process 2527.4.3 The dismantling of the gas reactor sector (AGR) 2527.4.4 Dismantling the heavy water industry 2537.4.5 The dismantling of prototype reactors from various sectors 2557.5 The dismantling of basic nuclear fuel cycle facilities 2567.5.1 The dismantling of extraction mines 2567.5.2 The dismantling of enrichment plants 2577.5.3 The dismantling of conversion and manufacturing plants 2597.5.4 The dismantling of reprocessing plants 2607.6 Decommissioning of other basic nuclear facilities 2637.6.1 The centers of nuclear studies 2637.6.2 The centers of industrial operation 2667.6.3 Service facilities 2697.6.4 Interim nuclear waste storage centers 2707.6.5 Other BNIs in the dismantling stage 2717.7 Conclusions 273General Conclusions 275List of Acronyms 287References 295Index 333

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books or book chapters and 150 presentations at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiChapter 1 Nuclear Non-Proliferation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The first countries to acquire the atomic bomb 21.3 The NPT 41.3.1 The functioning of the Treaty 51.3.2 Revision of the NPT 51.3.3 Successes of the NPT 61.3.4 Failures of the NPT 71.3.5 Future nuclear-weapon states 101.4 Other nuclear non-proliferation treaties 101.4.1 The CTBT Treaty 101.4.2 The TPNW 111.4.3 The Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT) 121.4.4 Regional disarmament treaties 141.5 Disarmament controls 151.5.1 Principle and practice of disarmament controls 151.5.2 NPT controls 171.6 Actions of NGOs 251.6.1 The main actions of NGOs for disarmament 261.6.2 NGOs and the Nobel Peace Prize 281.7 The military denuclearization of a state 291.7.1 South Africa: the example of the complete denuclearization of a country 291.7.2 Other states that have renounced nuclear weapons 311.8 Conclusions 32Chapter 2 Disarmament of Atomic Weapons 352.1 Introduction 352.2 Limitations on the number of nuclear weapons 352.2.1 Bilateral disarmament agreements and treaties between the Americans and Soviets 362.2.2 Delivery of nuclear supplies 392.2.3 Controlling the delivery systems of atomic weapons 392.2.4 The Hague Code of Conduct (HCoC) 402.2.5 The disarmament of France 422.3 Nuclear deterrent forces 432.3.1 Land forces of nuclear deterrence 452.3.2 Air forces of nuclear deterrence 462.3.3 Oceanic nuclear deterrent forces 482.3.4 Nuclear weapon manufacturing sites 502.3.5 Nuclear weapon deployment and storage sites 532.3.6 The state of stocks of nuclear weapons and fissile materials 562.4 Disarmament controls 612.4.1 Controls of the CTBT 612.4.2 Bilateral controls 622.5 Conclusions 62Chapter 3 International Recommendations and National Policies in Decommissioning 653.1 Introduction 653.1.1 Definitions of terms for end-of-life operations of a BNI 653.1.2 Stages in the life of a BNI 663.2 General principles of decommissioning and dismantling 673.2.1 The necessity and goals of decommissioning 673.2.2 IAEA recommendations 683.2.3 NEA work and publications 703.2.4 Decommissioning and dismantling strategies 703.2.5 Decommissioning planning 743.2.6 Duration of decommissioning 773.3 Lessons from the past 783.3.1 Experience in decommissioning 793.3.2 Structuring and organization of companies 803.3.3 Ongoing decommissioning challenges 803.3.4 Management of the unexpected in dismantling 803.3.5 The transmission of information 803.4 The decommissioning and dismantling policies of the various states 813.4.1 US policy 823.4.2 Russia’s policy 833.4.3 Germany’s policy 853.4.4 UK policy 863.4.5 France’s policy 883.4.6 China 933.4.7 Sweden 933.4.8 Japan 953.4.9 Other states 953.5 Conclusions 99Chapter 4 Procedures and Technologies Involved in Decommissioning 1014.1 Introduction 1014.2 The cost of dismantling 1014.2.1 International recommendations 1024.2.2 The American example 1054.2.3 The British example 1064.2.4 The French example 1084.2.5 The Russian example 1094.3 The production of radioactive waste 1094.3.1 The channels planned for the management of radioactive waste 1104.3.2 Material release thresholds 1124.4 The environmental and health risks of dismantling 1144.4.1 Assessment of environmental and health risks during decommissioning 1154.4.2 Environmental impact studies 1174.4.3 Total remediation of the site 1194.4.4 Health impacts of decommissioning 1234.4.5 Social impacts of decommissioning 1244.4.6 Regulatory provisions 1264.5 Nuclear decommissioning techniques 1274.5.1 Cutting techniques 1274.5.2 Decontamination techniques 1284.5.3 Automation or remote operation 1294.5.4 Remediation processes for civil engineering structures 1294.5.5 The main demolition techniques 1304.6 Technical innovations in nuclear decommissioning 1314.6.1 Research and development policies in the field of decommissioning 1314.6.2 Industrial organization in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1334.6.3 Management of radioactive contamination 1344.6.4 Numerical simulations in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1364.6.5 Cutting of large parts 1394.6.6 Automation in the field of nuclear decommissioning 1404.6.7 Estimating radiation doses 1424.7 Conclusions 142Chapter 5 The Dismantling of Military Nuclear Facilities 1455.1 Introduction 1455.2 The decommissioning of military plants at the beginning of the nuclear fuel cycle 1465.2.1 The decommissioning of military uranium enrichment plants 1465.2.2 Decommissioning of plutonium-producing reactors 1505.2.3 Decommissioning of tritium-producing reactors 1575.2.4 Decommissioning of fissile fuel fabrication plants 1585.3 The decommissioning of military spent fuel reprocessing plants 1595.3.1 The dismantling of US reprocessing plants 1605.3.2 The UP1 plant in Marcoule, France 1605.3.3 The dismantling of other military reprocessing plants around the world 1635.4 Decommissioning and decontamination of military sites 1635.4.1 US military facilities 1645.4.2 The dismantling of Soviet and Russian military nuclear facilities 1745.4.3 The dismantling of French military nuclear facilities 1765.4.4 The decontamination of the British site of Maralinga 1785.5 The destruction of atomic weapons and their vectors 1785.5.1 The deconstruction of atomic bombs 1785.5.2 American disarmament 1795.5.3 Russian disarmament: international collaboration 1805.5.4 Disarmament of submarines and other military nuclear vessels 1815.5.5 Denuclearization of rocket bases 1905.6 Conclusions 191Chapter 6 The Dismantling of Electronuclear Reactors 1936.1 Introduction 1936.1.1 The various types of electronuclear reactors 1946.2 The dismantling of graphite-moderated reactors 1956.2.1 Decommissioning of French nuclear power reactors (UNGG) 1956.2.2 The dismantling of British reactors 2006.2.3 The dismantling of the RMBK sector 2026.3 The dismantling of the pressurized water system (PWR) 2036.3.1 The dismantling of German reactors 2046.3.2 The dismantling of American reactors 2056.3.3 The dismantling of French reactors 2066.3.4 Reactor decommissioning in other countries 2076.3.5 The dismantling of WWER reactors 2076.4 Dismantling the heavy water sector 2106.5 Dismantling of the boiling water reactor sector 2126.6 Dismantling following a nuclear accident 2176.6.1 IAEA and NEA recommendations 2206.6.2 The dismantling of Three Mile Island 2216.6.3 The dismantling of Chernobyl 2226.6.4 The decommissioning of Fukushima 2236.6.5 Decommissioning of other damaged nuclear facilities 2246.7 Future reactor shutdowns 2256.8 Conclusions 227Chapter 7 The Decommissioning of Research Reactors and Other Basic Nuclear Facilities 2297.1 Introduction 2297.2 The dismantling of experimental reactors around the world 2307.2.1 The main roles of experimental reactors 2307.2.2 The global overview of experimental reactors 2317.2.3 The main types of experimental reactors 2337.2.4 Major incidents and accidents involving research reactors 2357.2.5 Cost 2367.2.6 Some examples of the decommissioning of experimental reactors 2367.2.7 Heavy water research reactors (HWRR) 2387.2.8 Fast neutron reactors 2407.2.9 Other research reactors 2407.3 Decommissioning and dismantling of fourth-generation reactors 2427.3.1 The dismantling of the fast neutron reactor (FNR) industry 2437.3.2 High-temperature nuclear reactors 2477.3.3 The other fourth-generation sectors 2487.4 The dismantling of first-generation prototype reactors 2497.4.1 PWR reactors 2507.4.2 The dismantling of the boiling water reactor (BWR) process 2527.4.3 The dismantling of the gas reactor sector (AGR) 2527.4.4 Dismantling the heavy water industry 2537.4.5 The dismantling of prototype reactors from various sectors 2557.5 The dismantling of basic nuclear fuel cycle facilities 2567.5.1 The dismantling of extraction mines 2567.5.2 The dismantling of enrichment plants 2577.5.3 The dismantling of conversion and manufacturing plants 2597.5.4 The dismantling of reprocessing plants 2607.6 Decommissioning of other basic nuclear facilities 2637.6.1 The centers of nuclear studies 2637.6.2 The centers of industrial operation 2667.6.3 Service facilities 2697.6.4 Interim nuclear waste storage centers 2707.6.5 Other BNIs in the dismantling stage 2717.7 Conclusions 273General Conclusions 275List of Acronyms 287References 295Index 333