Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books or book chapters and 150 presentations at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiChapter 1. Classifications and Origins of Radioactive Waste 11.1. Introduction 11.2. What is radioactive waste? 21.3. Classifications of nuclear waste 31.3.1. General information on the classification of radioactive waste 31.3.2. The IAEA’s recommendations 41.3.3. The French classification of radioactive waste 51.3.4. American classification 81.3.5. British classification 81.3.6. Russian classification 91.3.7. Comparisons of the various classifications 91.3.8. Classification of sealed sources 111.4. Origins of nuclear waste 111.4.1. The main radionuclides in radioactive waste 121.4.2. Wastes related to the nuclear fuel cycle 121.4.3. Nuclear waste from electricity production 141.4.4. Nuclear waste related to military activities 141.4.5. Wastes related to medical and industrial uses 151.4.6. Nuclear waste related to the dismantling of nuclear installations 161.4.7. Waste from nuclear accidents 171.5. The global radioactive waste balance 171.6. Conclusions 21Chapter 2. Nuclear Waste Disposal Methods 232.1. Introduction. How do we get rid of nuclear waste? What solutions are there for nuclear waste in the future? 232.2. Nuclear waste management 242.2.1. Dilutions 242.2.2. Decontamination 262.2.3. Reduction of the volume of radioactive waste 272.2.4. Radioactive waste immobilizations 292.2.5. The separation of radionuclides 332.2.6. Packaging of radioactive waste packages 342.2.7. Physical decay 352.2.8. Final storage 372.2.9. Transport of nuclear materials and radioactive waste 382.3. The special case of long-lived radioactive waste management 392.3.1. Treatment and packaging 392.3.2. Temporary storage facilities 422.3.3. Long-term storage 462.3.4. Storage in the seabed 482.3.5. Geological storage in a deep continental repository 532.3.6. Sending into space 592.3.7. Immobilization in polar ice 602.3.8. Transmutation 612.4. Conclusions 65Chapter 3. Management of Historic Radioactive Waste and Low-level Waste Around the World 673.1. Introduction 673.2. Management of historical radioactive waste 683.2.1. Uranium extraction and concentration waste 683.2.2. Direct discharges of liquid wastes into waterways and reservoirs 703.2.3. Historical military waste 723.2.4. The ancient uses of radium 733.2.5. Submergence in the ocean floor 733.3. International recommendations of the IAEA and NEA 783.3.1. General recommendations 793.3.2. Recommendations concerning graphite waste 833.3.3. Radioactive waste management solutions 833.3.4. Waiting and processing time for nuclear fuel 853.3.5. The need for teaching 853.4. Some examples of radioactive waste management 863.4.1. International inventories of radioactive waste 863.4.2. Surface storage 863.4.3. Geological disposal of radioactive waste 893.5. Radioactive waste outside the nuclear fuel cycle 933.5.1. Hospital and healthcare waste 933.5.2. Industrial and research waste 943.6. Conclusions 94Chapter 4. Management of Intermediate- and High-level Nuclear Waste 974.1. Introduction 974.2. International recommendations of the IAEA and NEA 994.2.1. Spent fuel management 994.2.2. Management of radioactive waste resulting from a nuclear accident 1004.2.3. Final repositories in deep geological layers 1014.2.4. Site selection criteria 1034.2.5. Temporal evolution of a deep geological repository 1044.2.6. Underground laboratory 1044.2.7. Retrievability and recovery 1084.2.8. Safety file 1094.2.9. Decision-making 1124.2.10. Long-term evolution and post-closure monitoring 1134.3. High-level radioactive waste management and the public 1144.3.1. Public perception of the geological repository project 1144.3.2. Public information or communication about the geological repository project 1154.3.3. Measures to support a radioactive waste management project 1164.3.4. Public participation in the geological repository project 1174.3.5. Information for future generations 1184.4. Alternative solutions 1204.4.1. Underwater temporary storage 1204.4.2. An interim solution: dry storage 1204.4.3. A waiting stage: long-term storage 1204.4.4. The American perspective of deep drilling 1214.5. Management of high-level radioactive waste by the various States 1214.5.1. States advocating a closed nuclear fuel cycle 1234.5.2. States that have reprocessed spent fuel in the past 1274.5.3. States with an open nuclear fuel cycle 1364.6. Conclusions 143Chapter 5. Nuclear Waste Management in France 1455.1. Introduction 1455.2. Direct discharges into the environment 1475.2.1. The nuclear study centers 1475.2.2. Nuclear reactors 1485.2.3. Fuel cycle plants 1485.3. The inventory of nuclear waste in France 1495.3.1. Military waste 1495.3.2. Civilian waste 1525.4. Nuclear waste management in France 1575.4.1. The regulatory context 1575.4.2. The National Radioactive Materials and Waste Management Plan (PNGMDR) 1585.4.3. The different actors in nuclear waste management in France 1595.5. The organization of storage for identified waste 1645.5.1. The various types of containers 1645.5.2. The management of very short-lived radioactive waste 1665.5.3. Management of very low-level radioactive waste 1665.5.4. Disposal centers for low- and intermediate-level short-lived nuclear waste in France 1675.5.5. Management of low-level, long-lived nuclear waste in France 1685.5.6. Management of long-lived intermediate- and high-level waste in France 1705.5.7. Fierce opposition and the arrival of social problems 1845.5.8. A centralized pool as an interim option 1855.5.9. Radioactive waste from the reprocessing of foreign spent fuel 1865.6. The management of specific waste and waste without a channel 1885.6.1. Management of historical waste 1895.6.2. Storage of tritiated waste 1905.6.3. Waste of natural origin 1915.6.4. Submerged waste 1945.7. French challenges to the radioactive waste management policy 1955.8. Conclusions 1975.8.1. Shortcomings in several categories of radioactive waste 1975.8.2. Recent developments in French nuclear policy 1975.8.3. Policy change on the closed cycle? 1985.8.4. Redefinition of radioactive waste and radioactive material 1985.8.5. The cost of waste management 199Chapter 6. General Conclusions 2016.1. Introduction 2016.2. The main problems concerning radioactive waste 2016.2.1. The problem of multiple classifications 2016.2.2. Radioactive waste or nuclear material? 2026.2.3. Waste without a channel 2026.2.4. Long-lived waste 2026.2.5. Very low-level waste 2026.3. Innovations in radioactive waste management 2036.3.1. Research on separation and transmutation 2036.3.2. Research on the aging of packaging 2046.3.3. Research on recycled nuclear fuel and cladding 2066.3.4. Research on deep burial 2076.3.5. Communication to the public 211List of Acronyms 213References 219Index 251

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books or book chapters and 150 presentations at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiChapter 1. Classifications and Origins of Radioactive Waste 11.1. Introduction 11.2. What is radioactive waste? 21.3. Classifications of nuclear waste 31.3.1. General information on the classification of radioactive waste 31.3.2. The IAEA’s recommendations 41.3.3. The French classification of radioactive waste 51.3.4. American classification 81.3.5. British classification 81.3.6. Russian classification 91.3.7. Comparisons of the various classifications 91.3.8. Classification of sealed sources 111.4. Origins of nuclear waste 111.4.1. The main radionuclides in radioactive waste 121.4.2. Wastes related to the nuclear fuel cycle 121.4.3. Nuclear waste from electricity production 141.4.4. Nuclear waste related to military activities 141.4.5. Wastes related to medical and industrial uses 151.4.6. Nuclear waste related to the dismantling of nuclear installations 161.4.7. Waste from nuclear accidents 171.5. The global radioactive waste balance 171.6. Conclusions 21Chapter 2. Nuclear Waste Disposal Methods 232.1. Introduction. How do we get rid of nuclear waste? What solutions are there for nuclear waste in the future? 232.2. Nuclear waste management 242.2.1. Dilutions 242.2.2. Decontamination 262.2.3. Reduction of the volume of radioactive waste 272.2.4. Radioactive waste immobilizations 292.2.5. The separation of radionuclides 332.2.6. Packaging of radioactive waste packages 342.2.7. Physical decay 352.2.8. Final storage 372.2.9. Transport of nuclear materials and radioactive waste 382.3. The special case of long-lived radioactive waste management 392.3.1. Treatment and packaging 392.3.2. Temporary storage facilities 422.3.3. Long-term storage 462.3.4. Storage in the seabed 482.3.5. Geological storage in a deep continental repository 532.3.6. Sending into space 592.3.7. Immobilization in polar ice 602.3.8. Transmutation 612.4. Conclusions 65Chapter 3. Management of Historic Radioactive Waste and Low-level Waste Around the World 673.1. Introduction 673.2. Management of historical radioactive waste 683.2.1. Uranium extraction and concentration waste 683.2.2. Direct discharges of liquid wastes into waterways and reservoirs 703.2.3. Historical military waste 723.2.4. The ancient uses of radium 733.2.5. Submergence in the ocean floor 733.3. International recommendations of the IAEA and NEA 783.3.1. General recommendations 793.3.2. Recommendations concerning graphite waste 833.3.3. Radioactive waste management solutions 833.3.4. Waiting and processing time for nuclear fuel 853.3.5. The need for teaching 853.4. Some examples of radioactive waste management 863.4.1. International inventories of radioactive waste 863.4.2. Surface storage 863.4.3. Geological disposal of radioactive waste 893.5. Radioactive waste outside the nuclear fuel cycle 933.5.1. Hospital and healthcare waste 933.5.2. Industrial and research waste 943.6. Conclusions 94Chapter 4. Management of Intermediate- and High-level Nuclear Waste 974.1. Introduction 974.2. International recommendations of the IAEA and NEA 994.2.1. Spent fuel management 994.2.2. Management of radioactive waste resulting from a nuclear accident 1004.2.3. Final repositories in deep geological layers 1014.2.4. Site selection criteria 1034.2.5. Temporal evolution of a deep geological repository 1044.2.6. Underground laboratory 1044.2.7. Retrievability and recovery 1084.2.8. Safety file 1094.2.9. Decision-making 1124.2.10. Long-term evolution and post-closure monitoring 1134.3. High-level radioactive waste management and the public 1144.3.1. Public perception of the geological repository project 1144.3.2. Public information or communication about the geological repository project 1154.3.3. Measures to support a radioactive waste management project 1164.3.4. Public participation in the geological repository project 1174.3.5. Information for future generations 1184.4. Alternative solutions 1204.4.1. Underwater temporary storage 1204.4.2. An interim solution: dry storage 1204.4.3. A waiting stage: long-term storage 1204.4.4. The American perspective of deep drilling 1214.5. Management of high-level radioactive waste by the various States 1214.5.1. States advocating a closed nuclear fuel cycle 1234.5.2. States that have reprocessed spent fuel in the past 1274.5.3. States with an open nuclear fuel cycle 1364.6. Conclusions 143Chapter 5. Nuclear Waste Management in France 1455.1. Introduction 1455.2. Direct discharges into the environment 1475.2.1. The nuclear study centers 1475.2.2. Nuclear reactors 1485.2.3. Fuel cycle plants 1485.3. The inventory of nuclear waste in France 1495.3.1. Military waste 1495.3.2. Civilian waste 1525.4. Nuclear waste management in France 1575.4.1. The regulatory context 1575.4.2. The National Radioactive Materials and Waste Management Plan (PNGMDR) 1585.4.3. The different actors in nuclear waste management in France 1595.5. The organization of storage for identified waste 1645.5.1. The various types of containers 1645.5.2. The management of very short-lived radioactive waste 1665.5.3. Management of very low-level radioactive waste 1665.5.4. Disposal centers for low- and intermediate-level short-lived nuclear waste in France 1675.5.5. Management of low-level, long-lived nuclear waste in France 1685.5.6. Management of long-lived intermediate- and high-level waste in France 1705.5.7. Fierce opposition and the arrival of social problems 1845.5.8. A centralized pool as an interim option 1855.5.9. Radioactive waste from the reprocessing of foreign spent fuel 1865.6. The management of specific waste and waste without a channel 1885.6.1. Management of historical waste 1895.6.2. Storage of tritiated waste 1905.6.3. Waste of natural origin 1915.6.4. Submerged waste 1945.7. French challenges to the radioactive waste management policy 1955.8. Conclusions 1975.8.1. Shortcomings in several categories of radioactive waste 1975.8.2. Recent developments in French nuclear policy 1975.8.3. Policy change on the closed cycle? 1985.8.4. Redefinition of radioactive waste and radioactive material 1985.8.5. The cost of waste management 199Chapter 6. General Conclusions 2016.1. Introduction 2016.2. The main problems concerning radioactive waste 2016.2.1. The problem of multiple classifications 2016.2.2. Radioactive waste or nuclear material? 2026.2.3. Waste without a channel 2026.2.4. Long-lived waste 2026.2.5. Very low-level waste 2026.3. Innovations in radioactive waste management 2036.3.1. Research on separation and transmutation 2036.3.2. Research on the aging of packaging 2046.3.3. Research on recycled nuclear fuel and cladding 2066.3.4. Research on deep burial 2076.3.5. Communication to the public 211List of Acronyms 213References 219Index 251

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books or book chapters and 150 presentations at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiChapter 1. Classifications and Origins of Radioactive Waste 11.1. Introduction 11.2. What is radioactive waste? 21.3. Classifications of nuclear waste 31.3.1. General information on the classification of radioactive waste 31.3.2. The IAEA’s recommendations 41.3.3. The French classification of radioactive waste 51.3.4. American classification 81.3.5. British classification 81.3.6. Russian classification 91.3.7. Comparisons of the various classifications 91.3.8. Classification of sealed sources 111.4. Origins of nuclear waste 111.4.1. The main radionuclides in radioactive waste 121.4.2. Wastes related to the nuclear fuel cycle 121.4.3. Nuclear waste from electricity production 141.4.4. Nuclear waste related to military activities 141.4.5. Wastes related to medical and industrial uses 151.4.6. Nuclear waste related to the dismantling of nuclear installations 161.4.7. Waste from nuclear accidents 171.5. The global radioactive waste balance 171.6. Conclusions 21Chapter 2. Nuclear Waste Disposal Methods 232.1. Introduction. How do we get rid of nuclear waste? What solutions are there for nuclear waste in the future? 232.2. Nuclear waste management 242.2.1. Dilutions 242.2.2. Decontamination 262.2.3. Reduction of the volume of radioactive waste 272.2.4. Radioactive waste immobilizations 292.2.5. The separation of radionuclides 332.2.6. Packaging of radioactive waste packages 342.2.7. Physical decay 352.2.8. Final storage 372.2.9. Transport of nuclear materials and radioactive waste 382.3. The special case of long-lived radioactive waste management 392.3.1. Treatment and packaging 392.3.2. Temporary storage facilities 422.3.3. Long-term storage 462.3.4. Storage in the seabed 482.3.5. Geological storage in a deep continental repository 532.3.6. Sending into space 592.3.7. Immobilization in polar ice 602.3.8. Transmutation 612.4. Conclusions 65Chapter 3. Management of Historic Radioactive Waste and Low-level Waste Around the World 673.1. Introduction 673.2. Management of historical radioactive waste 683.2.1. Uranium extraction and concentration waste 683.2.2. Direct discharges of liquid wastes into waterways and reservoirs 703.2.3. Historical military waste 723.2.4. The ancient uses of radium 733.2.5. Submergence in the ocean floor 733.3. International recommendations of the IAEA and NEA 783.3.1. General recommendations 793.3.2. Recommendations concerning graphite waste 833.3.3. Radioactive waste management solutions 833.3.4. Waiting and processing time for nuclear fuel 853.3.5. The need for teaching 853.4. Some examples of radioactive waste management 863.4.1. International inventories of radioactive waste 863.4.2. Surface storage 863.4.3. Geological disposal of radioactive waste 893.5. Radioactive waste outside the nuclear fuel cycle 933.5.1. Hospital and healthcare waste 933.5.2. Industrial and research waste 943.6. Conclusions 94Chapter 4. Management of Intermediate- and High-level Nuclear Waste 974.1. Introduction 974.2. International recommendations of the IAEA and NEA 994.2.1. Spent fuel management 994.2.2. Management of radioactive waste resulting from a nuclear accident 1004.2.3. Final repositories in deep geological layers 1014.2.4. Site selection criteria 1034.2.5. Temporal evolution of a deep geological repository 1044.2.6. Underground laboratory 1044.2.7. Retrievability and recovery 1084.2.8. Safety file 1094.2.9. Decision-making 1124.2.10. Long-term evolution and post-closure monitoring 1134.3. High-level radioactive waste management and the public 1144.3.1. Public perception of the geological repository project 1144.3.2. Public information or communication about the geological repository project 1154.3.3. Measures to support a radioactive waste management project 1164.3.4. Public participation in the geological repository project 1174.3.5. Information for future generations 1184.4. Alternative solutions 1204.4.1. Underwater temporary storage 1204.4.2. An interim solution: dry storage 1204.4.3. A waiting stage: long-term storage 1204.4.4. The American perspective of deep drilling 1214.5. Management of high-level radioactive waste by the various States 1214.5.1. States advocating a closed nuclear fuel cycle 1234.5.2. States that have reprocessed spent fuel in the past 1274.5.3. States with an open nuclear fuel cycle 1364.6. Conclusions 143Chapter 5. Nuclear Waste Management in France 1455.1. Introduction 1455.2. Direct discharges into the environment 1475.2.1. The nuclear study centers 1475.2.2. Nuclear reactors 1485.2.3. Fuel cycle plants 1485.3. The inventory of nuclear waste in France 1495.3.1. Military waste 1495.3.2. Civilian waste 1525.4. Nuclear waste management in France 1575.4.1. The regulatory context 1575.4.2. The National Radioactive Materials and Waste Management Plan (PNGMDR) 1585.4.3. The different actors in nuclear waste management in France 1595.5. The organization of storage for identified waste 1645.5.1. The various types of containers 1645.5.2. The management of very short-lived radioactive waste 1665.5.3. Management of very low-level radioactive waste 1665.5.4. Disposal centers for low- and intermediate-level short-lived nuclear waste in France 1675.5.5. Management of low-level, long-lived nuclear waste in France 1685.5.6. Management of long-lived intermediate- and high-level waste in France 1705.5.7. Fierce opposition and the arrival of social problems 1845.5.8. A centralized pool as an interim option 1855.5.9. Radioactive waste from the reprocessing of foreign spent fuel 1865.6. The management of specific waste and waste without a channel 1885.6.1. Management of historical waste 1895.6.2. Storage of tritiated waste 1905.6.3. Waste of natural origin 1915.6.4. Submerged waste 1945.7. French challenges to the radioactive waste management policy 1955.8. Conclusions 1975.8.1. Shortcomings in several categories of radioactive waste 1975.8.2. Recent developments in French nuclear policy 1975.8.3. Policy change on the closed cycle? 1985.8.4. Redefinition of radioactive waste and radioactive material 1985.8.5. The cost of waste management 199Chapter 6. General Conclusions 2016.1. Introduction 2016.2. The main problems concerning radioactive waste 2016.2.1. The problem of multiple classifications 2016.2.2. Radioactive waste or nuclear material? 2026.2.3. Waste without a channel 2026.2.4. Long-lived waste 2026.2.5. Very low-level waste 2026.3. Innovations in radioactive waste management 2036.3.1. Research on separation and transmutation 2036.3.2. Research on the aging of packaging 2046.3.3. Research on recycled nuclear fuel and cladding 2066.3.4. Research on deep burial 2076.3.5. Communication to the public 211List of Acronyms 213References 219Index 251