Phonetics

Henning Reetz is Professor of Phonology and Phonetics in the Department of Empirical Linguistics at the Goethe-University Frankfurt, Germany. He has published extensively on acoustic and auditory phonetics, and is actively pursuing research on Automatic Speech Recognition. Allard Jongman is a Professor in the Linguistics Department at the University of Kansas, USA and Co-Director of the University of Kansas Phonetics and Psycholinguistics Laboratory (KUPPL). Dr Jongman has published extensively on acoustic and auditory phonetics in a variety of languages and he is a Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America.

• Preface to the First Edition xiPreface to the Second Edition xiiiAbout the Companion Website xiv1 About this Book 11.1 Phonetics in a nutshell 21.2 The structure of this book 61.3 Terminology 81.4 Demonstrations and exercises 82 Articulatory Phonetics 9Articulation in a nutshell 92.1 Phonation at the larynx 102.2 Basic articulatory terms 112.3 The articulation of consonants 142.3.1 Place of articulation 152.3.2 Manner of articulation 152.3.3 Other classification schemes 182.4 The articulation of vowels 203 Phonetic Transcription 24Transcription in a nutshell 243.1 Types of transcription 253.2 Consonants 283.2.1 Plosives 293.2.2 Nasals 303.2.3 Fricatives 303.2.4 Affricates 313.2.5 Approximants 323.3 Vowels 333.4 Diacritics and other symbols 383.5 Transcription of General American English 393.5.1 Consonants 403.5.1.1 Aspiration, voicing, and devoicing 403.5.1.2 Coarticulation 413.5.1.3 Consonantal release 423.5.1.4 Flaps and taps 433.5.1.5 Glottal plosives 433.5.1.6 Velarization 443.5.1.7 Syllabic consonants 453.5.1.8 Intrusion 453.5.1.9 Duration 463.5.2 Vowels 483.5.2.1 Duration 483.5.2.2 Effects of following consonants 494 Place and Manner of Articulation of Consonants and Vowels 524.1 Consonants 534.1.1 Labials 554.1.2 Coronals 564.1.3 Dorsals 574.1.4 Gutturals 594.2 Additional manners of articulation 594.3 Vowels 604.4 Secondary articulations 635 Physiology of the Vocal Apparatus 66Physiology in a nutshell 665.1 The subglottal system: lungs, bronchi, and trachea 695.1.1 Anatomy of the subglottal system 695.1.2 Movements of the lungs 715.1.2.1 Breathing in (inspiration, inhalation) 715.1.2.2 Breathing out (expiration, exhalation) 725.1.3 The volumes of the lungs and their control over time 725.1.4 Loudness and the air pressure in the lungs 745.2 Structure and function of the larynx 745.2.1 Anatomy of the larynx 755.2.2 Vocal fold vibration 785.2.2.1 The Bernoulli effect and the aerodynamic theory 785.2.2.2 The myoelastic theory of vocal fold vibration 815.2.2.3 Two‐mass theory of vocal fold vibration 835.2.2.4 Muco‐viscose, cover body, and flow‐separation theory 845.2.2.5 One cycle of vocal fold vibration 855.2.3 Loudness and larynx signal 865.2.4 Register 885.3 Vocal tract 895.3.1 Pharynx 895.3.2 Nasal tract and velum 905.3.3 Oral tract 926 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types 95Airstream mechanisms and phonation in a nutshell 956.1 Airstream mechanisms 966.1.1 Glottalic airstream mechanisms 966.1.2 Velaric airstream mechanism 1006.2 Phonation types 1026.3 Voicing, voicelessness, and aspiration in plosives 1036.4 Common and rare sounds 1107 Basic Acoustics 113Basic acoustics in a nutshell 1137.1 Sound waves 1157.1.1 Sound waves are variations in air pressure 1157.1.2 Origin and propagation of sound waves 1157.1.3 The speed of sound 1187.1.4 Relative positions within a sound wave 1197.1.5 Longitudinal waves and transverse waves 1207.2 Measuring sound waves 1207.2.1 The microphone 1217.2.2 The oscillogram or waveform 1227.3 Acoustic dimensions and their units of measurement 1237.3.1 Frequency 1237.3.1.1 Period duration 1247.3.1.2 Period duration and period frequency 1257.3.1.3 Period frequency and wavelength 1277.3.1.4 Representing F0 over time 1287.3.2 Amplitude 1297.3.2.1 Representing amplitude changes over time 1347.3.3 Phase 1368 Analysis Methods for Speech Sounds 139Analysis in a nutshell 1398.1 Digitizing acoustic signals 1418.1.1 Digitizing in the time and amplitude domains 1428.1.2 Sampling rate 1438.1.3 Quantizing resolution 1458.2 Types of acoustic signals 1488.3 Analyzing acoustic signals 1518.3.1 Fourier transformation 1528.3.1.1 Summing up signals: Fourier synthesis 1528.3.1.2 Decomposing signals: Fourier analysis 1548.3.1.3 Harmonic frequencies 1558.3.1.4 Discrete Fourier transformation and “fast Fourier transformation” 1588.3.1.5 Fourier transformation for non‐periodic signals 1588.3.2 What information can be seen in a spectrum? 1598.3.3 “Windowing” in spectral analysis 1618.3.3.1 The relation between window size and spectral resolution 1648.3.3.2 The relation between resolution in the time and frequency domains 1658.3.4 Other spectral representations: the spectrogram 1668.3.5 The LPC spectrum 1698.3.6 The cepstrum and cepstrally smoothed spectrum 1729 The Source–Filter Theory of Speech Production 175The source–filter theory in a nutshell 1759.1 Resonance 1769.1.1 Resonating frequencies of cylindrical tubes 1779.1.2 Resonating frequencies of non‐cylindrical tubes 1809.2 Damping 1839.3 Filters 1839.3.1 Vocal tract filter 1879.3.2 Radiation at the lips and nostrils 1879.4 Formants 1899.4.1 Formant frequencies 1909.4.2 Formant bandwidth and quality 1929.5 Sources for speech sounds 1939.5.1 The glottal source: phonation for a modal voice 1939.5.1.1 Jitter 1969.5.1.2 Shimmer 1979.5.1.3 Harmonics‐to‐noise ratio (HNR) 1989.5.1.4 H1‐H2 measure and spectral tilt 1989.5.2 Breathy voice 1989.5.3 Creaky voice 2009.5.4 The noise source: turbulence 2019.5.4.1 Whisper 20210 Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds 206Acoustic characteristics in a nutshell 20610.1 Vowels 20710.2 Consonants 21310.2.1 (Central) approximants 21310.2.2 Fricatives 21510.2.3 Plosives 21910.2.4 Nasals 22110.2.5 Lateral approximants 22310.2.6 Affricates 22410.3 Summary 22610.4 Variability and invariance 22710.4.1 A theory of acoustic invariance 22811 Syllables and Suprasegmentals 234Syllables and suprasegmentals in a nutshell 23411.1 Syllables 23611.2 Stress 23811.3 Length 24311.4 Tone and intonation 24511.4.1 Tone 24611.4.2 Intonation 24912 Physiology and Psychophysics of Hearing 256Hearing in a nutshell 25712.1 The external ear 25812.2 The middle ear 25912.2.1 Increase in pressure in the middle ear 25912.2.2 Sound attenuation in the middle ear 26012.2.3 Pressure equalization in the tympanic cavity 26112.2.4 The oval window 26212.3 The internal ear 26212.3.1 Pressure waves in the cochlea 26312.3.2 The basilar membrane as an oscillating body 26512.3.3 Resonance theory 26512.3.4 Objections to the resonance theory 26612.3.5 Traveling wave theory 26612.4 The structure of the basilar membrane 26712.4.1 Outer hair cells 26812.4.2 Inner hair cells 26912.4.3 Frequency coding along the basilar membrane 27012.4.4 Oto‐acoustic emissions 27112.5 Auditory frequency scales 27212.5.1 Linear scales 27212.5.2 Logarithmic scales 27312.5.3 Mel scale 27412.5.4 Bark scale 27512.5.5 Equivalent rectangular bandwidth (ERB) scale 27712.6 Auditory loudness scales 27812.7 Auditory time scales 27913 Speech Perception 281Speech perception in a nutshell 28213.1 Vowels 28413.1.1 Extrinsic versus intrinsic normalization 28513.2 Consonants 28813.2.1 Approximants 28913.2.2 Fricatives 29013.2.3 Nasals 29113.2.4 Plosives 29213.3 Contributions of the motor theory of speech perception 29513.3.1 Categorical perception 29613.3.2 Is speech “special”? 30113.3.2.1 Non‐speech perception 30313.3.2.2 Animal perception 30413.4 Theories of speech perception 30513.5 The role of linguistic experience in speech perception 30913.6 Summary 313AppendicesA.1 Mass, Force, and Pressure 315A.2 Energy, Power, and Intensity 317A.3 The Decibel (dB) 320A.3.1 RMS amplitude 320A.3.2 RMS amplitude and loudness 324A.3.3 Calculations with dB values 327B.1 Physical Terminology 330B.2 Mathematical Notations 332C.1 Formant Values 336C.2 Fundamental Frequency Values 337D.1 Glossary 338References 355Index 368