Peppers

Dr. Prasad S. Variyar, formerly at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), served as the Senior Scientist, in the Food Technology Division, BARC, Mumbai India and Professor at the HomiBhabha National Institute, Mumbai India. Significant contributions include development of newer radiation processed minimally processed convenience foods, novel dosimeters for determining absorbed gamma radiation dose and newer biodegradable packaging for food irradiation applications. He has over 150 publications in high impact international peer reviewed journals and has three patents and ten technology transfers to his credit.Inder Pal Singh is a Professor of Natural Products Chemistry at National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar. His research interests include isolation of bioactive molecules from natural sources, biomimetic synthesis of bioactive natural products and their analogs for therapeutic areas such as HIV, cancer, and leishmaniasis, and standardization of herbal/Ayurvedic formulations using various analytical techniques. Inder Pal has been awarded Honorary Visiting Professorship of Shizuoka University, Japan, and served as Dean - Pharmacy, Maharaja Ranjit Singh Punjab Technical University, Bathinda. He has over 165 publications and is co-author of two books. Vanshika Adiani, PhD is a Scientist working at Food Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, India. Major focus of her work is in the field of food processing, safety and security. She has developed rapid detection techniques for assessment of microbial quality in minimally processed fruits, colorimetric time temperature indicator devices for easy visual determination of spoilage of minimally processed fruits. Her current research include developing methods and prototype for detection of spice adulteration with various synthetic non-permitted dyes using machine learning tools. Dr. Penna Suprasanna is the Director, Amity Centre for Nuclear Biotechnology, Amity University Maharashtra, Mumbai,India; Former-Head of the Nuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India. His research interests are agricultural biotechnology, climate-smart agriculture, molecular plant stress physiology, and nuclear agriculture. He has served as an expert with International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna and Member, Food Security Committee, Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences, DAE. He has more than 380 research publications to his credit and several edited books.

• Preface xii The Editors xiii List of Contributors xiv Chapter 1 Peppers—an Overview on The Bioactives and their Nutritional, Functional Properties and Post-Harvest Processing 1 Prasad S. Variyar and Penna Suprasanna 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Capsicum 2 1.3 Chemical Composition 3 1.4 Capsaicinoids and Carotenes: Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation 4 1.5 Quality Evaluation of Peppers 6 1.6 Effect of Pre- and Post-Harvest Factors on the Quality of Pepper Fruits 7 1.7 Nutritional and Functional Properties 9 1.8 Medicinal and Health Benefits 9 1.8.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 9 1.8.2 Cardiovascular Health 9 1.8.3 Immunity Booster 10 1.8.4 Alleviates Prostate Cancer 10 1.8.5 Prevention of Stomach Ulcers 10 1.8.6 Reduces Risk of Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity 10 1.8.7 Antirhinitis Agent 10 1.9 Novel and Diverse Products of Pepper 10 1.10 Post-Harvest Processing for Improved Production of Bioactive Compounds 11 1.11 Conclusions 12 References 12 Chapter 2 Genetic Diversity for Fruit Quality Traits in Chilli (Capsicum spp.) 16 Pavani, N., Satyaprakash Barik, Naresh Ponnam and Madhavi Reddy K 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Pepper Diversity, Domestication and Conservation 17 2.3 Hybridization and Crossability 19 2.4 Genetic Resources and Breeding of Peppers for Industrial Use 19 2.5 Conclusions 21 References 21 Chapter 3 Contribution of Interspecific Hybridization for Improvement in Quality and Productivity in Pepper 25 Kazım Mavi 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Systematic Advances in Interspecific Hybridization 27 3.3 Problems and Solutions in Interspecific Hybridization 30 3.3.1 Hybridization Barriers 303.3.2 Post-Fertilization Abnormalities and Embryo Rescue 303.3.3 Infertility (Sterility) in Interspecific Hybrids 313.4 Detection of Interspecific Hybrids by Molecular Techniques 333.5 Quality Development Through Interspecific Hybridization 333.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 35References 36Chapter 4 Chemical Diversity and Functionality of Capsaicinoids 40Inder Pal Singh, Nobuyuki Mase, Ankur Kumar Tanwar, Neha Sengar and Olivia Chatterjee4.1 Introduction 414.1.1 Capsaicinoids 414.1.2 Capsiates (Natural Capsaicin Analogues) 424.1.3 Biosynthesis of Capsaicinoids 434.1.4 Capsaicin 434.1.5 Metabolism of Capsaicin 444.2 Pharmacological Activity of Capsaicinoids 454.2.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 454.2.2 Antidiabetic Activity 464.2.3 Antioxidant Activity 474.2.4 CNS Activity 474.2.5 Cardiovascular Activity 484.2.6 Chemopreventive Activity 484.2.7 Hypocholesterolemic and Hypolipidemic Activity 494.2.8 Antiulcer Property 504.3 Structure Activity Relationship (SAR) of Capsaicinoids 504.3.1 Substitution in A Region 504.3.2 Substitution in B Region 534.3.3 Substitution in C Region 554.4 Conclusion 59References 60Chapter 5 Analytical Methods for Capsaicinoids and Other Bioactive Metabolites 65Inder Pal Singh, Dharmistha Rajput and Debanjan Chatterjee 5.1 Introduction 655.1 Introduction 655.2 Extraction Techniques 675.3.1 Chromatographic Techniques 715.3.2 Spectroscopic Techniques 745.3.3 Hyphenated Techniques 765.4 Summary 78References 78Chapter 6 Transcriptomics of Chili Pepper Fruit with Emphasis on the Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 80Maria Guadalupe Villa-Rivera, Octavio Martínez and Neftalí Ochoa-Alejo6.1 Introduction 806.2 Applications of Transcriptomic Analysis in Chili Pepper 816.2.1 Transcriptomic Analysis in the Study of Bioactive Compounds 836.3 Transcriptomics and Transcriptional Regulation of the CarotenoidBiosynthetic Pathway 846.3.1 Carotenoid Biosynthesis Pathway in Chili Pepper 846.3.2 Transcriptional Regulation of Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 876.4 Gene Functional Networks of Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in Chili Pepper 886.4.1 Time Expression Profiles of Genes Involved in Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Chili Pepper 886.4.2 Location of Putative Binding Sites of Transcription Factors Candidates on Structural Genes 926.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 93References 94Chapter 7 Chemistry and Post-Harvest Processing Technologies of Peppers (Capsicum spp.) 98Filipe Kayodè Felisberto dos Santos, Rayssa Ribeiro, Karine Sayuri Lima Miki, Barbara Elisabeth Teixeira-Costa and Valdir Florêncio da Veiga Júnior7.1 Introduction 987.2 Peppers and Their Chemical Complexity 997.2.1 Capsaicinoids 997.2.2 Carotenoids 1007.2.3 Flavonoids 1027.3 Update on Peppers’ Medicinal Properties and Applications 1027.4 Physical, Chemical and Non-Destructive Post-Harvest Technologies 1057.4.1 Dehydration 1057.4.2 Freezing 1067.4.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 1067.4.4 Application of Edible Coatings 1077.5 Trends and Perspectives 108References 109Chapter 8 Capsaicin and Capsaicinoids—Sources, Characteristics, Isolation, Food and Medical Uses 113Talía Hernández-Pérez and Octavio Paredes-López8.1 Introduction 1138.2 Main Characteristics of Capsaicinoids 1148.3 Pungency 1158.4 Non-Pungent Compounds 1168.5 Nutraceutical and Medical Potential of Capsaicin 1178.5.1 Antiobesity Effect 1178.5.2 Analgesic Potential 1198.5.3 Anticancer Activity 1208.5.4 Urinary System Disorders 1208.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 1218.7 Acknowledgements 122References 122Chapter 9 Medicinal Bioactive Secondary Metabolites of Indian Chili (Capsicum sp.) 126Debosree Ghosh, Partha Sarathi Singha and Ramkrishna Ghosh9.1 Introduction 1269.2 Secondary Metabolites as Bioactive Phytocompounds 1279.3 Secondary Metabolites of Indian Chilies and Their Medicinal Properties 1289.3.1 Alkaloids from Chili 1299.3.2 Terpenoids 1299.3.3 Terpenoid-Alkaloids 1309.3.4 Polyphenols 1309.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 1339.5 Acknowledgement 134References 134Chapter 10 Recent Trends in Pepper-Derived Products for Food Matrices 138Somnath Basak and Rekha S. Singhal10.1 Introduction 13810.2 Oleoresins and Essential Oils 13910.3 Inclusion Complexes 14110.4 Essential Oil–Based Emulsions 14410.5 Essential Oil–Based Powder 14510.6 Pepper-Based Beverage 14510.7 Fermented Whole Peppers 14610.8 Pepper-Based Protein 15010.9 Summary 150References 151Chapter 11 Capsaicinoids from Sustainable Capsicum Production for Nutraceutical Development � 155Mursleen Yasin, Michelle Donovan-Mak, Zhong-Hua Chen and Sunil K. Panchal11.1 Introduction 15511.2 The Genus Capsicum 15611.3 Global Production of Capsicums and Chillies 15711.4 The Science of Pungency in Capsicum 15811.5 Capsaicinoids 15911.6 Production of Capsaicinoids 16011.7 Factors Affecting Capsaicinoid Production 16111.7.1 Genetics 16211.7.2 Light 16311.7.3 Water Availability 16311.7.4 Mineral Nutrients 16411.7.5 Temperature 16411.8 Growth and Developmental Stages 16411.9 Properties of Capsaicinoids and Capsinoids 16511.10 Extraction of Capsaicinoids 16611.10.1 Methods of Extraction 16611.11 Properties of Capsaicin 16811.12 Postharvest Technology to Increase Production of Capsaicinoids 16911.13 Metabolomics in Capsicums 17011.13.1 Carotenoids 17111.13.2 Phenolics 17211.13.3 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 17211.14 Solutions Toward Reducing Capsicum and Chilli Waste 17311.15 Sustainable Use of Waste of Capsicum Crops 17311.16 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 174References 174Chapter 12 Post-Harvest Handling and Processing of Green and Red Indian Chillies 184A.J. Sachin, P. Preethi, S.V.R. Reddy and P. Naresh12.1 Introduction 18512.2 Green Chillies 18512.2.1 Harvesting, Packaging, and Transportation 18512.2.2 Processing and Value Addition 18612.3 Dry Chillies 18712.3.1 Drying 18712.3.2 Packaging and Storage 19012.3.3 Sorting and Grading 19112.4 Conclusion 191References 191Chapter 13 Influence of Packaging on Postharvest Quality of Peppers 194Komal Sonawane and Ramanand Jagtap13.1 Introduction 19413.2 Pepper Packaging 19513.2.1 Pepper Characteristics 19513.2.2 Contamination and Flavor Preservation in Pepper Packaging: From Harvesting to Processing 19613.2.3 Oxygen Interaction with Packaging Material 19613.2.4 Interaction of Pepper Ingredients with Packaging Material 19713.3 Dependability of Oxygen Permeation on Structure of Polymeric Packaging Material 19813.4 Types of Packaging Material 19913.5 Recent Advances in Pepper Packaging 20213.5.1 Single-Layer and Double-Layer Packaging 20213.5.2 Multilayer Packaging 20313.6 Disposal Challenges for Multilayer System 20413.7 Active Packaging Systems .20613.8 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 20613.9 Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Packaging 20713.9.1 Biocompostable Packaging 20813.10 Intelligent Packaging 20813.11 Innovative Packaging Designs 20913.12 Nanohybrid-Based Biocomposites 21013.13 Packaging Design and Structure 21113.14 Storage Duration 21113.15 Conclusions 212References 213Chapter 14 Pepper Fixed Oil: Novel Source of Oil-Based Nutraceuticals 219Ajay W. Tumaney, Vallamkondu Manasa, Palak Daga and Salony Raghunath Vaishnav14.1 Introduction 21914.1.1 Overview of Pepper Production 21914.1.2 Health Benefits of Pepper Oil 22014.2 Pepper Oils 22314.2.1 Total Oil 22414.2.2 Essential Oil 22514.2.3 Fixed Oil 22514.2.4 Oleoresins 22614.3 Oil Nutraceuticals 22614.3.1 Polyphenols 22714.3.2 Tocopherols 22714.3.3 Phytosterols 22814.3.4 Antioxidants 22914.4 Conclusion 230References 230Chapter 15 Effect of Newer Non-Thermal Processing 235Admajith M. Kaimal, Amrutha M. Kaimal and Rekha S. Singhal15.1 Introduction 23515.1.1 A Brief Overview of Capsicum Production 23615.1.2 Post-Harvest Scenario and Losses 23615.2 Impact of Paprika Constituents During Storage 23715.2.1 Proximate Composition 23715.2.2 Vitamins 23915.2.3 Polyphenols 23915.2.4 Carotenoids 23915.2.5 Capsaicinoids 24015.3 Non-Thermal Processing of Paprika 24015.3.1 High-Pressure Processing (HPP)� 24115.3.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing (PEF) 24415.3.3 Pulsed Light Processing (PL) 24515.3.4 Ozone 24615.3.5 Non-Thermal Plasma 24815.3.6 Irradiation 25015.3.7 Ultrasound 25115.3.8 Other Novel Technologies 25115.3.9 Synergistic Technologies 25215.4 Effect of Non-Thermal Process on Paprika Constituents 25315.4.1 Proximate Composition 25315.4.2 Polyphenols 25615.4.3 Carotenoids 25715.4.4 Capsaicinoids 25715.5 Food Safety and Regulatory Challenges 25715.6 Future Prospects 25815.7 Conclusions � 258References 258Chapter 16 Adulteration and Authenticity Testing of Chilli 264B. Sasikumar16.1 Introduction 26416.2 Adulterants in Chilli 26516.3 Techniques for Adulterant Detection 26516.3.1 Physical and Sensing Methods 26516.3.2 Analytical Methods 26716.3.3 Other Methods 27216.4 Chilli—an Adulterant .27316.5 Future Perspectives and Conclusion 274References 274Index 281