Eric Chassefière is a physicist and member of the History of Astronomical Sciences Team of SYRTE, Paris. Also Director of Research at CNRS in Paris, he is specialized in the study of planetary atmospheres. He has also taught the physics of the Earth and its atmosphere at the École Polytechnique, Paris.

• Introduction ixChapter 1 The Aurora Borealis Issue of the Affirmation of the Cartesian Mechanism and the Dispute Between Paris and Montpellier: The French Choice 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The two main systems of the aurora borealis 21.2.1 Halley’s system 21.2.2 Mairan’s system 51.3 History of the aurora borealis in the volumes of the Académie Royale des Sciences between 1716 and 1733 81.3.1 The silence on Halley’s system in Mémoires and Histoire 81.3.2. The memoir refused by the Parisian Academy of François de Plantade .. 131.4 The Montpellier actors: François de Plantade and the Société Royale des Sciences 201.4.1 François de Plantade, founder of the Société Royale de Montpellier 201.4.2 The Société Royale des Sciences de Montpellier 211.5 The Parisian actors: Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan, the Académie Royale des Sciences 261.5.1 The Académie Royale des Sciences 261.5.2 The permanent secretary Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle 301.5.3 Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan 371.6 The London actors: Hans Sloane and Edmond Halley, the Royal Society 431.6.1 Hans Sloane 431.6.2 Edmond Halley 451.6.3 The Royal Society and its relations with the Académie Royale des Sciences 491.7 Discussion of the reasons for rejecting Plantade’s submission 51Chapter 2 Joseph-Nicolas Delisle: Grandeur and Vicissitudes of a Newtonian Scientist with Thwarted Ambitions 552.1 Introduction 552.2 Delisle in the period before his departure for Russia (1710–1725) 612.2.1 Delisle’s beginnings in astronomy and optics, a Newtonian 612.2.2 Delisle’s setbacks at the Académie Royale des Sciences 712.2.3 Delisle’s great project: Histoire Céleste 832.2.4 Epilogue concerning the Parisian period 892.3 The invitation to St Petersburg and Delisle’s Russian period (1726–1747) 902.3.1 The cartographic objective of Delisle’s mission 902.3.2 Delisle’s means at the St Petersburg Observatory 972.4 Brief synthesis of Delisle’s scientific trajectory 1092.5 Conclusion 112Chapter 3 The Creation Ex-nihilo and the Beginnings of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences: The Influence of Christian Wolff 1153.1 Introduction 1153.2 The foundation of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg 1173.2.1 Historical context 1173.2.2 Peter the Great’s Imperial Academy of Sciences project 1203.2.3 The birth of astronomy in Russia 1223.3 Christian Wolff, the aurora borealis and their first observers at the Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg 1253.3.1 Historical context 1253.3.2 Christian Wolff’s conference 1263.3.3 The quartet of aurora observers at the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg 1313.3.4 The rejection of aurora observations by Mayer 1353.3.5 Euler’s physical–mathematical explanation 1433.3.6 Mayer’s philosophical position and possible reasons for his abandonment of aurora observation 1463.4 The Imperial Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg 1493.4.1 The setting up of the Academy 1493.4.2 The clerical and noble opposition 1513.4.3 Wolffians versus Newtonians 1553.4.4. The problems of the functioning of the Academy in the decades 1730–1740 1613.4.5 The regulation of 1748 refounding the Academy 1643.5 Conclusion 167Chapter 4 Anders Celsius and the European Observation Networks, Setting Up a Science Society and an Astronomical Observatory in Uppsala 1714.1 Introduction 1714.2 The life of Celsius 1734.2.1 The first years 1734.2.2 The European journey 1764.2.3 Maupertuis’ expedition in Lapland 1794.2.4 The last few years 1814.3 Three European networks for the observation of natural phenomena 1844.3.1 The observations of the aurora borealis around de Mairan 1854.3.2 Monitoring the variations of the magnetic needle according to Anders Celsius 1904.3.3 Thermometry and meteorological records around Joseph-Nicolas Delisle 1994.4 The Royal Society of Uppsala and Celsius’ legacy 2114.4.1 Historical context of the Enlightenment in Sweden 2114.4.2 Birth and development of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala 2144.4.3 Relations between the Royal Society and the University 2194.4.4 Celsius’ legacy 2224.5 Conclusion 228Chapter 5 Genesis of the Academies of Bologna and Berlin, the Involvement of Women in Astronomy and the Gender Issue 2315.1 Introduction 2315.2 Three examples of “astronomical households” 2365.2.1. The Kirchs: an artisanal-type household inspired by the guild tradition 2385.2.2 The Manfredis: a household with a humanistic coloration inherited from the Renaissance 2475.2.3 The Delisle family: an artisanal household where women took care of the family scientific heritage 2555.3 Two examples of astronomical institutions: the academies of Bologna and Berlin and their observatories 2595.3.1 The Academy and the Bologna Observatory 2625.3.2 The Academy and the Observatory of Berlin 2705.4 Astronomical households, institutions and gender in Bologna and Berlin 2805.5 Conclusion 287Conclusion 289Appendix 301References 313Index 331

Eric Chassefière is a physicist and member of the History of Astronomical Sciences Team of SYRTE, Paris. Also Director of Research at CNRS in Paris, he is specialized in the study of planetary atmospheres. He has also taught the physics of the Earth and its atmosphere at the École Polytechnique, Paris.

• Introduction ixChapter 1 The Aurora Borealis Issue of the Affirmation of the Cartesian Mechanism and the Dispute Between Paris and Montpellier: The French Choice 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The two main systems of the aurora borealis 21.2.1 Halley’s system 21.2.2 Mairan’s system 51.3 History of the aurora borealis in the volumes of the Académie Royale des Sciences between 1716 and 1733 81.3.1 The silence on Halley’s system in Mémoires and Histoire 81.3.2. The memoir refused by the Parisian Academy of François de Plantade .. 131.4 The Montpellier actors: François de Plantade and the Société Royale des Sciences 201.4.1 François de Plantade, founder of the Société Royale de Montpellier 201.4.2 The Société Royale des Sciences de Montpellier 211.5 The Parisian actors: Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan, the Académie Royale des Sciences 261.5.1 The Académie Royale des Sciences 261.5.2 The permanent secretary Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle 301.5.3 Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan 371.6 The London actors: Hans Sloane and Edmond Halley, the Royal Society 431.6.1 Hans Sloane 431.6.2 Edmond Halley 451.6.3 The Royal Society and its relations with the Académie Royale des Sciences 491.7 Discussion of the reasons for rejecting Plantade’s submission 51Chapter 2 Joseph-Nicolas Delisle: Grandeur and Vicissitudes of a Newtonian Scientist with Thwarted Ambitions 552.1 Introduction 552.2 Delisle in the period before his departure for Russia (1710–1725) 612.2.1 Delisle’s beginnings in astronomy and optics, a Newtonian 612.2.2 Delisle’s setbacks at the Académie Royale des Sciences 712.2.3 Delisle’s great project: Histoire Céleste 832.2.4 Epilogue concerning the Parisian period 892.3 The invitation to St Petersburg and Delisle’s Russian period (1726–1747) 902.3.1 The cartographic objective of Delisle’s mission 902.3.2 Delisle’s means at the St Petersburg Observatory 972.4 Brief synthesis of Delisle’s scientific trajectory 1092.5 Conclusion 112Chapter 3 The Creation Ex-nihilo and the Beginnings of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences: The Influence of Christian Wolff 1153.1 Introduction 1153.2 The foundation of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg 1173.2.1 Historical context 1173.2.2 Peter the Great’s Imperial Academy of Sciences project 1203.2.3 The birth of astronomy in Russia 1223.3 Christian Wolff, the aurora borealis and their first observers at the Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg 1253.3.1 Historical context 1253.3.2 Christian Wolff’s conference 1263.3.3 The quartet of aurora observers at the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg 1313.3.4 The rejection of aurora observations by Mayer 1353.3.5 Euler’s physical–mathematical explanation 1433.3.6 Mayer’s philosophical position and possible reasons for his abandonment of aurora observation 1463.4 The Imperial Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg 1493.4.1 The setting up of the Academy 1493.4.2 The clerical and noble opposition 1513.4.3 Wolffians versus Newtonians 1553.4.4. The problems of the functioning of the Academy in the decades 1730–1740 1613.4.5 The regulation of 1748 refounding the Academy 1643.5 Conclusion 167Chapter 4 Anders Celsius and the European Observation Networks, Setting Up a Science Society and an Astronomical Observatory in Uppsala 1714.1 Introduction 1714.2 The life of Celsius 1734.2.1 The first years 1734.2.2 The European journey 1764.2.3 Maupertuis’ expedition in Lapland 1794.2.4 The last few years 1814.3 Three European networks for the observation of natural phenomena 1844.3.1 The observations of the aurora borealis around de Mairan 1854.3.2 Monitoring the variations of the magnetic needle according to Anders Celsius 1904.3.3 Thermometry and meteorological records around Joseph-Nicolas Delisle 1994.4 The Royal Society of Uppsala and Celsius’ legacy 2114.4.1 Historical context of the Enlightenment in Sweden 2114.4.2 Birth and development of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala 2144.4.3 Relations between the Royal Society and the University 2194.4.4 Celsius’ legacy 2224.5 Conclusion 228Chapter 5 Genesis of the Academies of Bologna and Berlin, the Involvement of Women in Astronomy and the Gender Issue 2315.1 Introduction 2315.2 Three examples of “astronomical households” 2365.2.1. The Kirchs: an artisanal-type household inspired by the guild tradition 2385.2.2 The Manfredis: a household with a humanistic coloration inherited from the Renaissance 2475.2.3 The Delisle family: an artisanal household where women took care of the family scientific heritage 2555.3 Two examples of astronomical institutions: the academies of Bologna and Berlin and their observatories 2595.3.1 The Academy and the Bologna Observatory 2625.3.2 The Academy and the Observatory of Berlin 2705.4 Astronomical households, institutions and gender in Bologna and Berlin 2805.5 Conclusion 287Conclusion 289Appendix 301References 313Index 331

Eric Chassefière is a physicist and member of the History of Astronomical Sciences Team of SYRTE, Paris. Also Director of Research at CNRS in Paris, he is specialized in the study of planetary atmospheres. He has also taught the physics of the Earth and its atmosphere at the École Polytechnique, Paris.

• Introduction ixChapter 1 The Aurora Borealis Issue of the Affirmation of the Cartesian Mechanism and the Dispute Between Paris and Montpellier: The French Choice 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The two main systems of the aurora borealis 21.2.1 Halley’s system 21.2.2 Mairan’s system 51.3 History of the aurora borealis in the volumes of the Académie Royale des Sciences between 1716 and 1733 81.3.1 The silence on Halley’s system in Mémoires and Histoire 81.3.2. The memoir refused by the Parisian Academy of François de Plantade .. 131.4 The Montpellier actors: François de Plantade and the Société Royale des Sciences 201.4.1 François de Plantade, founder of the Société Royale de Montpellier 201.4.2 The Société Royale des Sciences de Montpellier 211.5 The Parisian actors: Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan, the Académie Royale des Sciences 261.5.1 The Académie Royale des Sciences 261.5.2 The permanent secretary Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle 301.5.3 Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan 371.6 The London actors: Hans Sloane and Edmond Halley, the Royal Society 431.6.1 Hans Sloane 431.6.2 Edmond Halley 451.6.3 The Royal Society and its relations with the Académie Royale des Sciences 491.7 Discussion of the reasons for rejecting Plantade’s submission 51Chapter 2 Joseph-Nicolas Delisle: Grandeur and Vicissitudes of a Newtonian Scientist with Thwarted Ambitions 552.1 Introduction 552.2 Delisle in the period before his departure for Russia (1710–1725) 612.2.1 Delisle’s beginnings in astronomy and optics, a Newtonian 612.2.2 Delisle’s setbacks at the Académie Royale des Sciences 712.2.3 Delisle’s great project: Histoire Céleste 832.2.4 Epilogue concerning the Parisian period 892.3 The invitation to St Petersburg and Delisle’s Russian period (1726–1747) 902.3.1 The cartographic objective of Delisle’s mission 902.3.2 Delisle’s means at the St Petersburg Observatory 972.4 Brief synthesis of Delisle’s scientific trajectory 1092.5 Conclusion 112Chapter 3 The Creation Ex-nihilo and the Beginnings of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences: The Influence of Christian Wolff 1153.1 Introduction 1153.2 The foundation of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg 1173.2.1 Historical context 1173.2.2 Peter the Great’s Imperial Academy of Sciences project 1203.2.3 The birth of astronomy in Russia 1223.3 Christian Wolff, the aurora borealis and their first observers at the Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg 1253.3.1 Historical context 1253.3.2 Christian Wolff’s conference 1263.3.3 The quartet of aurora observers at the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg 1313.3.4 The rejection of aurora observations by Mayer 1353.3.5 Euler’s physical–mathematical explanation 1433.3.6 Mayer’s philosophical position and possible reasons for his abandonment of aurora observation 1463.4 The Imperial Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg 1493.4.1 The setting up of the Academy 1493.4.2 The clerical and noble opposition 1513.4.3 Wolffians versus Newtonians 1553.4.4. The problems of the functioning of the Academy in the decades 1730–1740 1613.4.5 The regulation of 1748 refounding the Academy 1643.5 Conclusion 167Chapter 4 Anders Celsius and the European Observation Networks, Setting Up a Science Society and an Astronomical Observatory in Uppsala 1714.1 Introduction 1714.2 The life of Celsius 1734.2.1 The first years 1734.2.2 The European journey 1764.2.3 Maupertuis’ expedition in Lapland 1794.2.4 The last few years 1814.3 Three European networks for the observation of natural phenomena 1844.3.1 The observations of the aurora borealis around de Mairan 1854.3.2 Monitoring the variations of the magnetic needle according to Anders Celsius 1904.3.3 Thermometry and meteorological records around Joseph-Nicolas Delisle 1994.4 The Royal Society of Uppsala and Celsius’ legacy 2114.4.1 Historical context of the Enlightenment in Sweden 2114.4.2 Birth and development of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala 2144.4.3 Relations between the Royal Society and the University 2194.4.4 Celsius’ legacy 2224.5 Conclusion 228Chapter 5 Genesis of the Academies of Bologna and Berlin, the Involvement of Women in Astronomy and the Gender Issue 2315.1 Introduction 2315.2 Three examples of “astronomical households” 2365.2.1. The Kirchs: an artisanal-type household inspired by the guild tradition 2385.2.2 The Manfredis: a household with a humanistic coloration inherited from the Renaissance 2475.2.3 The Delisle family: an artisanal household where women took care of the family scientific heritage 2555.3 Two examples of astronomical institutions: the academies of Bologna and Berlin and their observatories 2595.3.1 The Academy and the Bologna Observatory 2625.3.2 The Academy and the Observatory of Berlin 2705.4 Astronomical households, institutions and gender in Bologna and Berlin 2805.5 Conclusion 287Conclusion 289Appendix 301References 313Index 331