Microplastics in the Environment

Rao Y. Surampalli is President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES) in Lenexa, USA. Tian C. Zhang is Professor in the department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. Bashir M. Al-Hashimi is Vice-President for Research and Innovation at King’s College London, UK. Chih-Ming Kao is Professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at the National Sun Yat-sen University in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Makarand M. Ghangrekar is Institute Chair Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India. Puspendu Bhunia is Professor at the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, India. Sovik Das is Assistant Professor at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India.

• Preface xviiNotes on Editors xixSection I The Existence and Characterization of Microplastics 11 Introduction and Book Overview 3Yasser Bashir, Nehaun Zargar, Neha Sharma, Almeenu Rasheed, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al-Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Chih-Ming Kao1.1 Background and Definition 3`1.2 Impacts of MPs on the Environment, Society, and Economics 71.3 Solutions, Knowledge Gaps, and Challenges 91.4 Policies and Practices to Regulate MPs 101.5 Book Structure and Overview of Chapters 111.6 Conclusion 12References 132 Classifications and Physiochemical Properties of Microplastics 17Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang2.1 Introduction 172.2 Structural Properties 212.3 Physical Properties 282.4 Chemical Properties 312.5 Thermal Stability 332.6 Conclusion 34References 353 Degradation of Plastics and Formation of Primary and Secondary Microplastics 43Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang3.1 Introduction 433.2 Physical and Mechanical Degradation 463.3 Chemical Degradation 503.4 Biological Degradation 513.5 Degradation Pathway 543.6 Degradation Products and Byproducts 583.7 Toxicity of Products and Byproducts 593.8 Conclusion 61References 614 Advanced Techniques for Sampling, Quantification, and Characterization of Microplastics 69Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih-Ming Kao, Pu-Fong Liu, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi4.1 Screening 694.2 Sampling and Extraction 714.3 Characterization for Size, Shape, and Chemical Composition 844.4 Quantification 884.5 Harmonizing Approaches and Valuable Minimal Technical Criteria and Specification 904.6 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 954.7 Conclusion 97References 985 Technologies for Polymer Identification and Monitoring of Microplastics Distribution 107Akhil Gupta and Pratik Kumar5.1 Introduction 1075.2 Instrumentational Methods to Study Microplastics in Different Matrices 1125.3 Technologies for Measuring Nano-Microplastics and Determining the Relative Contributions of Particles of Varying Size, Shape and Chemical Composition 1155.4 Distribution and Monitoring of Microplastics 1175.5 Review of Existing Monitoring Programs for Marine Microplastics 1195.6 Other Techniques for Monitoring 1275.7 Conclusions 130References 1306 Characterizing Microplastics in the Context of Risk Assessment 135Akash Tripathi, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli6.1 Introduction 1356.2 The TK/TD of MPs in a Representative Organism 1366.3 Determining the Particle Size Range Where Any Toxicity Resides 1426.4 Identifying Potential Uncertainties and Concerns 1446.5 Determining Relative Levels of Confidence Regarding Toxicological Data 1456.6 Conclusion 148References 1487 Understanding Environmental and Socio-economic Risks Associated with Microplastics 153Azhan Ahmad, Monali Priyadarshini, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli7.1 Background 1537.2 Economic Impacts 1547.3 Social Impacts 1557.4 Environmental Sensitivity and Variability of Microplastic 1577.5 Toxicological Impact of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms 1597.6 Strategies for Managing Microplastic in the Environment 1617.7 Conclusion and Way-forward 162References 163Section II Microplastics in Different Compartments and Their Effects on Environments and Humane Society 1678 Microplastics in the Environment: Sources, Distribution, Fate, and Transport 169Hua-Bin Zhong, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi8.1 MPs in the Aquatic Environment (Surface/Ground Waters and Ocean) 1698.2 MPs in the Terrestrial Environment (Soil and Sediment) 1718.3 MPs in the Polar Region 1738.4 MPs in the Atmospheric Environment and Transboundary Transport 1758.5 MPs in Food and Agricultural Crops 1798.6 MPs Associated with the Construction Industry 1808.7 MPs in Urban Environmental Management Systems 1838.8 Contaminants Released from Aged MPs 1868.9 Fate/Transport and Behavior of MPs in Pollution Control Systems 1888.10 Conclusion 200References 2009 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Various Aquatic Environmental Compartments 207Mahima John Horta, Yerramilli Sai Rama Krishna, N. Seetha, and Pritha Chatterjee9.1 Introduction 2079.2 Transport Mechanisms of Microplastics in the Environment 2109.3 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Riverine Environment 2159.4 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Estuaries 2269.5 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Marine Environment 2319.6 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Subsurface 2369.7 Conclusions 243Acknowledgments 243Nomenclature 244References 24710 Ecological Impacts of Microplastics and Their Additives: Exposure Risk/Toxicity Assessment and Fate/Transport of Persistent, Bio-Accumulative and Toxic Substances 259Qamaruz Zaman Khaki and Pratik Kumar10.1 Introduction 25910.2 Creating Standardized Toxicity Tests for MPs 26010.3 Dose–Response Analysis and Formulation of Standards 26410.4 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Microplastics 26510.5 Chemical Risk Posed by Ingested Microplastics 26510.6 Development of Health-Based Threshold 26610.7 Effects of Exposure: Microplastics Transferred to the Consumers 26610.8 Are Microplastics Vectors (for Organisms or Chemical Pollutants in the Environment)? – Sorption of Potentially Toxic Pollutants on Microplastics 26910.9 Connect Microplastics to Existing or Novel Adverse Outcome Pathways 26910.10 The Relevant Receptors 27110.11 Exposure Pathways 27210.12 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Ingestion 27310.13 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Inhalation 27310.14 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Dermal Contact 27310.15 Toxicokinetic/Dynamic Processes 27410.16 MPs Plus Chemicals/Nanomaterials/Pathogens Attached/Sorbed on them – Ecological Effects of Chemical Contaminants Adsorbed to Microplastics 27410.17 Interrelationships Among Different Factors 27610.18 Interaction of Microplastics with PBTs and Other Emerging Contaminants 27610.19 Conclusion 277References 27811 Interactions of Microplastics with Microbial Communities and the Food Web/Plants 283Santosh Kumar, Akash Tripathi, Shraddha Yadhav, Srishti Mishra, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar11.1 Introduction 28311.2 Interactions of MPs with Natural Organic Materials, Crops, and Plants 28511.3 Interaction Between Microbial Community and MPs 29111.4 Effect of MPs on Metabolic Activities of the Organisms 29511.5 Leaching of MPs from Dumpsites to Soil 29511.6 MPs from Silage Film for Storage of Silage 29611.7 Change in the Geo-chemical Properties of Soil due to MPs 29611.8 Effect of MPs on the Food Web and Food Chain 29711.9 Are Biodegradable Plastics Less Negative Than the Others? 29811.10 Biostimulation by Nutrients 29911.11 Conclusion 300References 30012 Environmental and Toxicological Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Ecosystems 311Jin-Min Li, Hua-Bin Zhong, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang12.1 Background 31112.2 Sources of MPs in Aquatic Environments 31212.3 Consumption of MPs by Aquatic Organisms and Increase in Aquatic Leaching Rate 31612.4 Transport of MPs in the Aquatic Trophic Level 31712.5 Occurrence of MPs in Aquatic Ecosystems 31812.6 Effects of MPs on Freshwater Ecosystems 32112.7 Effects of MPs in Marine Ecosystems 32512.8 Increase in Toxicity and Impacts on Biodiversity 33412.9 Conclusions 336References 33613 Human Exposures to Microplastics: Impact of Different Routes 347Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang13.1 Introduction 34713.2 Pathways of Human Exposure to Microplastics 34913.3 Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Human Beings 35613.4 Use of Biomarkers to Elucidate Microplastic Toxicity 36213.5 Case Studies on Human Exposure 36613.6 Conclusions 368References 368Section III Removal, Control, and Management of Microplastics 38314 Plastic Pollution Management—Innovative Solutions for Plastic Waste 385Saikat Sinha Ray, Randeep Singh, Mahesh Ganesapillai, and Young-Ho Ahn14.1 Introduction 38514.2 Design and Production 39014.3 Packaging and Distribution 39414.4 Disposal 40214.5 System-based Approaches 40714.6 Conclusion 410References 41115 Preventing Secondary Sources of Microplastics in the Environment 417Zaid Mushtaq Bhat, Asif Farooq, Mavra Farooq, Mariha Feroz, and Khalid Muzamil Gani15.1 Introduction 41715.2 Reducing Usage of Plastics 41815.3 Recycle and Reuse of Microplastics 41915.4 Chemical Upcycling of Polymers 42415.5 Polymer Construction and Deconstruction 42715.6 Cleaning of Plastic Waste from Environment 42815.7 Proper Monitoring of Plastic Waste 43015.8 Different Multiple Thresholds the Tiered Framework 43415.9 Conclusion 43515.10 Future Perspective 436References 43616 Reducing and Eliminating Plastic Waste via Societal Changes 447Pu-Fong Liu, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang16.1 Introduction 44716.2 The Importance of Consumer Culture and Behavior 44816.3 Reduction, Substitution, and Control of Microplastics From Human Usage 45316.4 Future Directions 46416.5 Conclusion 465References 46517 Technologies for Removal and Remediation of Microplastics 469Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang17.1 Introduction 46917.2 Microplastic Remediation Technologies 47017.3 Conclusions 530References 53218 Catalysis for the Upcycling of Polymers 545Debanjali Dey, Manisha Sain, Zahoor Manzoor, and Shamik Chowdhury18.1 Introduction 54518.2 Considerations for Substrates and Characterization 54718.3 Application of Bio-Based Catalysts 54918.4 Application of Electrocatalysts 55018.5 Application of Chemical Catalysts 55318.6 Conclusion 555References 55519 Biodegradable Bioplastics 559Neha Sharma, Koran Barman, Nehaun Zargar, Almeenu Rasheed, and Sovik Das19.1 Production of Bioplastics 55919.2 Standards and Guidelines to Test the Biodegradability of Bioplastics 56119.3 Application of Bioplastics 56319.4 Limitations of Bioplastic 56419.5 Environmental Sustainability of Bioplastics 56619.6 Economic Assessment of Bioplastics 56919.7 Comparison of Bioplastic with Polymer-Based Plastic 57019.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 571References 57220 Global Strategies/Policies and Citizen Science for Microplastic Management 577Jin-Min Li, Ming-Fang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang20.1 Guidelines for Pollutant Control at Source 57720.2 Enforcement of Legislative Measures 58020.3 Existing Regulations and Acts in Global Scenarios 58320.4 Public Perception and Participation 58720.5 Community Analysis-Based Models 59120.6 Conclusions 593References 59421 Life Cycle and Techno-Economic Assessment of Microplastics Remediation Technologies and Policies 599Almeenu Rasheed, Divyanshu Sikarwar, and Sovik Das21.1 Introduction 59921.2 Technological Efficiency and Social Impact 59921.3 Economic Aspect and Cost–Benefit Analysis 60121.4 LCA of Treatment Techniques 60421.5 Conclusion 608References 60822 Case Studies on Microplastic Contamination with a Focus on the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic 611Lourembam Nongdren, Sai Lahar Reddy, Biswajit Samal, Kumar Raja Vanapalli, and Brajesh K. Dubey22.1 Introduction 61122.2 Microplastic Contamination 61222.3 COVID-19 Pandemic: Impact on Waste Management 61522.4 Interactions Between Microplastics and COVID-19 61622.5 Case Studies: COVID-19-Related Microplastic Pollution 61722.6 Environmental Consequences of Microplastics and COVID-19 61822.7 Human Health Risks 62122.8 Mitigation Strategies 62222.9 Conclusion 624References 625Index 629