Introduction to Sociolinguistics

RONALD WARDHAUGH is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Toronto, Canada. He is the author of number of books, including Proper English (Wiley Blackwell, 1998) and Understanding English Grammar, Second Edition (Wiley Blackwell, 2003).JANET M. FULLER is Professor and Chair of Language and Society, Department of European Languages and Cultures, University of Groningen, The Netherlands. Her previous publications have explored many aspects of multilingualism, with a recent focus on language ideologies, social identities, and discourses of national belonging. She is the author of Spanish Speakers in the USA and Bilingual Pre-Teens: Competing Ideologies and Multiple Identities in the US and Germany, and co-author of Speaking Spanish in the US and co-editor of Studies in Contact Linguistics.

• List of Figures xiiiList of Tables xivAcknowledgments xvAbout the Companion Website xvii1 Introduction 1Key Topics 1The Nature of Language 2Knowledge of Language 3Competence and performance 4Variation 6Variants and the linguistic variable 7Language Users and Their Groups: Identities 8Language and Culture 10Directions of influence 11The Whorfian hypothesis 11Correlations 13The Interdisciplinary Legacy of Sociolinguistics 14Overview of the Book 16Chapter Summary 16Exercises 17Further Reading 18References 19Part I Languages, Communities, and Contexts 232 Languages, Dialects, and Varieties 25Key Topics 25What is a Language? 25Language or Dialect? 26Mutual intelligibility 27The role of social identity 29Standardization 30The standard as an abstraction 30The standardization process 31The standard and language change 32Standard language? 33The standard–dialect hierarchy 33Regional Dialects 34Dialect geography 34Everyone has an accent 35Social Dialects 36Kiezdeutsch ‘neighborhood German’ 37Ethnic dialects 39African American Vernacular English 40Features of AAVE 41Development of AAVE 42Societal aspects of AAVE Use 43Styles and Indexes: The Social Meanings of Linguistic Forms 43Chapter Summary 47Exercises 47Further Reading 48References 493 Defining Groups 55Key Topics 55Speech Communities 56Linguistic boundaries 56Shared norms 57Communities of Practice 60Social Networks 62Social Identities 64Beliefs about Language and Social Groups 65Language ideologies 66The standard language ideology 66The purist ideology 67Monoglossic ideologies 67Iconicity, erasure, and recursivity 68Language attitudes 69Perceptual dialectology 69Matched/verbal guises 70Implicit association task (IAT) 71Chapter Summary 72Exercises 72Further Reading 73References 744 Language in Context: Pragmatics 79Key Topics 79Speech Acts 79Performatives 80Implicature 83Maxims 83Politeness 85Face 85Positive and negative politeness 86Beyond politeness theory 87Politeness and indirectness 88Pronouns 89Tu and vous: power and solidarity 89Pronouns and positioning 92Naming and Titles 92Fluidity and change in address terms 94Chapter Summary 97Exercises 97Further Reading 100References 100Part II Theory and Methods 1055 Language Variation and Change 107Key Topics 107Variables and Correlations 107Types of linguistic variables 108Indicators, markers and stereotypes 109Independent variables 109Data Collection and Analysis 110The observer’s paradox 110The sociolinguistic interview 110Sampling 111Apparent time and real time 112Doing Quantitative Research: What Do the Numbers Really Mean? 112Regional Variation 113Mapping dialects 114Methods in dialectology 115Dialect mixture and free variation 117Linguistic atlases 117Social Variation 118Social class membership 118The First Wave of Variation Studies 120Early work on gender variation 121The fourth floor 121Variation in Norwich 124Variation in Detroit 124Variation in Glasgow 125Linguistic constraints on variation 126Language Variation and Change 127Change from above and below 127Some changes in progress 127Change across space: urban centers and physical barriers 129Change over time or age-grading? 129Martha’s Vineyard 131Gender and language change 132Language change and the linguistic marketplace 136The Second Wave of Variation Studies 137Social networks 138Social network theory and language change 139Gender variation in the second wave 140Jocks and burnouts 141The Third Wave of Variation Studies 142Stance, style, and identity 142Change across the lifespan 144Chapter Summary 144Exercises 144Further Reading 146References 1466 Ethnographic Approaches in Sociolinguistics 153Key Topics 153Ethnography: Participant Observation 153The Ethnography of Communication 155Communicative competence 156The communicative event and communicative acts 157The SPEAKING device 157Ethnography and beyond 160Ethnomethodology 161Background knowledge as part of communication 161Commonsense knowledge and practical reasoning 162Garfinkel and his students: studies in ethnomethodology 163Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis 164Critical Ethnography 164(Socio)linguistic Ethnography 165Digital Ethnographies: Research in Online Communities 167Ethnography in Combination with Other Sociolinguistic Methods 168Chapter Summary 169Exercises 169Further Reading 171References 1727 Discourse Analysis 175Key Topics 175Conversation Analysis 176Adjacency pairs 177Openings 178Closings 179Turn-taking 181Repair 182Institutional talk 183Membership categorization 185Interactional Sociolinguistics 185Data and methodologies 186Contextualization and stance 188Identities 189Critical Discourse Analysis 192Contrasts and critiques 193Methodologies and connections 193Corpus Linguistics 196Chapter Summary 198Exercises 198Further Reading 199References 200Part III Multilingual Matters 2078 Languages in Contact: Multilingual Societies and Multilingual Discourse 209Key Topics 209Multilingualism as a Societal Phenomenon 210Language competencies in multilingual societies 211Language ideologies surrounding multilingualism 211Linguistic landscapes 213Language attitudes in multilingual settings 216Language Maintenance and Shift 218Diglossia 219Domains 220Language attitudes and ideologies 220Language learning 220The statuses of the H and L varieties 221Extended diglossia and language maintenance 222Questioning diglossia 223Multilingual Discourse 224Metaphorical and situational codeswitching 225Communication accommodation theory 225The markedness model 226Multilingual identities 227Bricolage 230Chapter Summary 231Exercises 231Further Reading 235References 2359 Contact Varieties: Structural Consequences of Social Factors 243Key Topics 243The Structure of Codeswitching 243Loanwords and Calques 245Convergence 246Ethnicized and Social Dialects as Contact Varieties 247Latinx Englishes 248Straattaal ‘street language’ 249Mixed Languages 250Lingua Francas 252Pidgin and Creole Languages: Definitions 253Connections between P/C languages and second language acquisition 254Creole Formation 255Theories of creole genesis 256Geographical Distribution 258Linguistic Characteristics of P/C Languages 259Phonology 260Morphosyntax 260Vocabulary 261From Pidgin to Creole and Beyond 262Creole continuum? 263Chapter Summary 265Exercises 265Further Reading 266References 26610 Language, the Nation, and Beyond 273Key Topics 273Language and Nation 273Nationalism and language 274Language and national identity categories 278Belonging beyond the nation 280Language and Migration 282Identity construction in the context of migration 282Identity over time and space 284Diversity and superdiversity 287Discourses of migration and integration 288LADO 291Language and Globalization 293Global English: threat or promise? 295Language and the Digital World 296Chapter Summary 298Exercises 298Further Reading 298References 299Part IV Sociolinguistics and Social Justice 30511 Language, Gender, and Sexuality 307Key Topics 307Defining Terms: Sex Category, Gender, and Sexuality 307Sexist Language 309Grammatical gender marking 310Language change 312Deficit, Dominance, and Difference 313Women’s language as a deficit 314Dominance 315Difference 316Gender and Sexuality Identities 317Multiple identities 318The role of hegemonic ideologies in gender and sexuality identity construction 319Context-specific identity construction: the workplace 321Discourses of Gender and Sexuality 323Normative discourses 323Discourses about language use 325Chapter Summary 326Exercises 326Further Reading 327References 32712 Sociolinguistics and Education 335Key Topics 335Social Dialects and Education 336Restricted codes and the language gap 336Difference not deficit 337Role of the home dialect in education 340An achievement gap? 342Education in Multilingual Contexts 343Ideologies 343Use of minoritized languages in the classroom 345Elite and immigrant bilingualism 348Education and World-Wide English 349Circles of English 350English in world-wide education 350Elite closure 351English in Europe 353Chapter Summary 354Exercises 355Further Reading 356References 35613 Language Policy and Planning 365Key Topics 365Terminology, Concepts, and Development of the Field 365Types of language planning 366The intellectual history of LPP 369Data and methods 370LPP and Nationalization 372LPP in Turkey: orthography and purity 372LPP in the Soviet Union and the post-Soviet era: from Russification to nationalization 373Official monolingualism in France 375LPP in Post- and Neo-Colonial Contexts 376Kenya 376India 377Multilingual Countries and LPP 378Canada 379Belgium 380Papua New Guinea 381Singapore 381Feminist Language Planning 382Endangered Languages and the Spread of English 384Endangered languages 384Family language policy, new speakers, and LPP 385English world-wide 387Language policy … or lack thereof 389Chapter Summary 389Exercises 389Further Reading 390References 391Glossary 397Index 421

“Overall, the volume provides a balanced survey of important topics, research methods and trends, and contemporary issues in the field of sociolinguistics and offers instructors a valuable option for advanced undergraduate or graduate students.” - LINGUIST List 33.1917