Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants

About the Editors Mohammad B. Hossain, is a Research Officer in the Department of Food Biosciences at Teagasc Food Research Centre in Ashtown, Ireland, and is a member of the editorial board of 'Antioxidants' and 'Journal of Food Processing and Beverages'. Nigel P. Brunton, is an Associate Professor at the School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Ireland. Dilip K. Rai, is a Senior Research Officer in the Department of Food Biosciences at Teagasc Food Research Centre in Ashtown, Ireland where he focuses on nutraceuticals.

• List of Contributors xi1 Thermal Processing of Herbs and Spices 1Anjali H. Kurup, Shweta Deotale, Ashish Rawson, and Ankit Patras1.1 Introduction 11.2 Thermal Processing of Spices 21.2.1 Cooking and Roasting of Spices 21.2.2 Blanching 91.2.3 High-Pressure Steam Treatment 101.2.4 Electromagnetic Energy (Microwave) Treatment 121.3 Thermal Processing of Herbs 131.4 Conclusion 16References 172 Non-Thermal Processing of Herbs and Spices 23Camila A. Perussello2.1 Introduction 232.2 Ozone 252.3 Irradiation 282.4 Pulsed Electric Field 312.5 Pulsed Light 332.6 Fumigation with Ethylene Dioxide 342.7 High Pressure CO2 Coupled with Ultrasound 362.8 Cold Plasma 372.9 Conclusions 39References 393 Recent Developments in High-Quality Drying of Herbs and Spices 45Wei Jin, Min Zhang, Weifeng Shi, and Arun S. Mujumdar3.1 Introduction 453.2 Novel Combined Drying Methods 463.2.1 Solar-Related Combined Drying Methods 473.2.2 Microwave-Related Combined Drying Methods 533.2.3 Other Energy Sources-Related Combined Drying Methods 593.3 Other Innovative Drying Methods 613.4 Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research 62Acknowledgments 63References 634 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Bioactive Compounds from Herbs and Spices 69Md Abu Bakar Siddique, Katerina Tzima, Dilip K. Rai, and Nigel Brunton4.1 Introduction 694.2 Principles of Extraction 704.2.1 Solid–Liquid Extraction 704.2.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 744.3 Factors Affecting Extraction 764.3.1 Solid–Liquid Extraction 764.3.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 794.3.3 Soxhlet Extraction 824.4 Optimized Extraction Techniques for Herbs and Spices 854.5 Conclusion 85References 885 Novel Extraction Techniques for Bioactive Compounds from Herbs and Spices 95Andrea P. Sánchez-Camargo, Lidia Montero, Jose A. Mendiola, M. Herrero, and E. Ibáñez5.1 Introduction 955.2 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 965.2.1 Description of the Technique 965.2.2 Applications of PLE to Herbs and Spices 985.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 1015.3.1 Description of the Technique 1015.3.2 Applications of SFE to Herbs and Spices 1035.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) 1055.4.1 Description of the Technique 1055.4.2 Applications of UAE to Herbs and Spices 1065.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) 1085.5.1 Description of the Technique 1085.5.2 Applications of MAE to Herbs and Spices 1095.6 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) 1125.6.1 Description of the Technique 1125.6.2 Applications of EAE to Herbs and Spices 1135.7 Integration of Different Extraction Techniques 1155.7.1 Ultrasound–Microwave-Assisted Extraction (UMAE) 1155.7.2 Enzyme-Based–Ultrasound–Microwave-Assisted Extraction (EUMAE) 1165.7.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction–Pressurized Fluid Extraction (SFE–PLE) 1165.7.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction Assisted by Ultrasound (SFE–UAE) 1185.8 Conclusions and Future Outlook 120Acknowledgments 121References 1216 Approaches to Analytical Techniques – Characterizing Phytochemicals in Verbascum spp. 129Anna-Maria Keaveney, Ambrose Furey, and Brigid Lucey6.1 Introduction 1296.2 The Challenge of Complexity 1346.3 Extraction Processes 1376.4 Separation and Detection 1406.4.1 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) 1436.4.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 1466.4.3 Gas Chromatography (GC) 1476.4.4 Ion Exchange Chromatography, Size Exclusion Chromatography, Capillary Electrophoresis 1476.4.5 Hyphenated Techniques (LC–MS, GC–MS, LC–NMR) 1486.4.6 TLC Bioautography 1496.4.7 Spectroscopic Methods 1506.5 Chemical Characterization 1516.5.1 Iridoid Glycosides 1536.5.2 Flavonoids 1586.5.3 Phenylethanoid/Phenylproponoid Glycosides 1596.5.4 Saponins 1606.5.5 Spermine Alkaloids 1616.5.6 Polysaccharides 1616.5.7 Other Constituents 1626.6 Discussion 1626.7 Conclusion 165Funding and Acknowledgments 166References 1667 Purification and Isolation Techniques for Enrichment of Bioactive Phytochemicals from Herbs and Spices 177Ramón Aznar and Dilip K. Rai7.1 Introduction 1777.2 How to Approach Purification and Isolation 1787.3 Purification Techniques 1807.3.1 Liquid–Liquid Fractionation 1807.3.2 Solid-Phase Extraction 1817.3.3 Preparative Liquid Chromatography 1857.3.4 Hydrolysis 1947.3.5 Membrane Filtration 1957.3.6 Recrystallization 1957.3.7 Other Techniques 1977.4 Example of Purification and Isolation 1987.5 Challenges and Future Trends 199References 2018 Medicinal Properties of Herbs and Spices: Past, Present, and Future 207Celia Rodríguez-Pérez and Ramón Aznar8.1 Introduction 2078.2 Historical Uses of Herbs and Spices 2088.3 Herbs and Spices in the Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases 2108.3.1 Anticancer Properties 2108.3.2 Anti-inflammatory Properties 2308.3.3 Antidiabetic Properties 2318.3.4 Antiobesity Properties 2338.3.5 Hypolipidemic Properties 2338.3.6 Influence on Digestive Stimulation 2358.3.7 Antihypertensive Properties 2368.3.8 Protection Against Alzheimer’s Disease 2368.3.9 Hepatoprotective Properties 2378.4 Interaction and Potential Side Effects 2388.5 Future Trends 239Abbreviations 239References 2409 Synergy in Whole Plant Medicine: Crataegus spp.: An Example 251Mary C. Tassell, Anne-Maria Keaveney, Rosari Kingston, Deirdre Gilroy, Mary Lehane, Brigid Lucey, and Ambrose Furey9.1 Introduction 2519.2 Cardiovascular Diseases 2529.3 Crataegus spp. 2529.4 Synergy 2549.4.1 Dose–Effect Approaches 2579.4.2 Effect-Based Approaches 2609.5 Mechanisms of Action 2629.5.1 Multitarget Effects 2649.5.2 Pharmacokinetic or Physicochemical Effects (Enhanced Bioavailability, Improved Solubility, or Improved Resorption Rate) 2649.5.3 Interactions with the Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms of Bacteria 2649.5.4 Improved Effectiveness by, for Example, Elimination or Neutralization ofAdverse or Toxic Effects 2659.6 Crataegus spp. – a Review 2669.6.1 Published Papers 2669.6.2 Multitarget Effects 2709.7 General Considerations 2729.7.1 Lack of a Precise Definition for Combination Effects 2729.7.2 Heterogeneity of Studies 2739.7.3 Preparations Used 2739.7.4 Absorption and Bioavailability 2749.8 Conclusion 275Funding and Acknowledgments 276References 27610 Potential Applications of Polyphenols from Herbs and Spices in Dairy Products as Natural Antioxidants 283Katerina Tzima, Nigel P. Brunton, Alka Choudhary, and Dilip K. Rai10.1 Introduction 28310.2 Implications in the Use of Herbs and Spices as Natural Antioxidants in Milk and Dairy Products 28410.2.1 Effect of Phenolic Concentration on Milk and Dairy Products 28410.2.2 Effect of Phenolics on the Organoleptic Properties of Dairy Products 28510.2.3 Effect of Phenolics on the Protein Stability of Milk and Dairy Products 28710.2.4 Effect of Indigenous Antioxidant Compounds (Chlorophyll) on the Color of Milk and Dairy Products 28810.3 Milk and Dairy Products as Carriers of Natural Antioxidants 28810.3.1 Butter and Dairy Spreads as Carriers of Natural Antioxidants 28910.3.2 Cheese as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 29010.3.3 Ghee as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 29110.3.4 Sandesh as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 29210.3.5 Yogurt as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 29310.3.6 Ice Cream as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 294Abbreviations 294References 29411 Biotic and Abiotic Safety Concerns for Herbs and Spices 301Manja Zec and Maria Glibetic11.1 Natural Products in Science – “Generally Recognized as Safe?” 30311.2 Herbs and Spices – Reported Adverse Effects and Adverse Drug Reactions 30411.3 (A)Biotic Factors Incorporated in the Foodchain and Influencing the Safety of Herbal Consumption 30611.4 Herbal Product Safety Concerns – Advances in Identification and Regulatory Framework 309References 31312 Adverse Human Health Effects and Regulation of Metal Contaminants in Terrestrial Plant-Derived Food and Phytopharmaceuticals 321Ciara-Ruth Kenny, Brigid Lucey, and Ambrose Furey12.1 Introduction 32112.2 Sources of Environmental Metal Impurities Contributing to Plant Material Contamination 32312.2.1 Soil and Surrounding Rhizosphere 32412.2.2 Air 32612.2.3 Water (Ground-, Surface- and Waste-water) 32712.2.4 Processing, Packaging, Storage, and Preparation 32712.3 Overview of Metal Uptake Systems in Plants 32812.4 Human Exposure to Metals in Plant-Derived Food and Associated Regulation 32812.4.1 Aluminum (Al) 33512.4.2 Arsenic (As) 33612.4.3 Cadmium 34212.4.4 Chromium (Cr) 34612.4.5 Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg) 34812.5 Metals in Phytopharmaceuticals and Associated Regulation 34912.5.1 Phytopharmaceuticals 34912.5.2 Current European Regulatory Guidelines: The Herbal Directive Scheme 34912.5.3 Current Quality Criteria for Metal Impurities 35112.5.4 Key Issues 35412.6 Metal Contaminants in Supplements: An Overview 35612.7 Conclusion 356Declaration of Interest 357Funding and Acknowledgments 357References 357Index 377