Franck Varenne is Associate Professor of philosophy of science at the University of Rouen (Normandy – France) and associate researcher at IHPST (CNRS – Paris). His research focuses on the history and epistemology of formal models and computer simulations in contemporary science, especially in biology and geography. He has published around fifty-five articles and chapters. He has also published eight books and co-edited three collective books.

• Contents ; List of figures;Acknowledgments ;List of French abbreviations ; Introduction ; Chapter 1 – Geometric and botanic simulation ; 1 The probabilistic simulation of branching biological shapes: Cohen (1966) ;2 The epistemic functions of modular programming, simulation and visualization;3 The first geometric and realistic simulation of trees (Honda-Fisher, 1971-1977) ;4 The limitations of morphometry and of thermodynamics of trees ;5 The first geometric simulation of an actual tree: Terminalia ;6 A recap of geometric simulation ; Chapter 2: The logical model and algorithmic simulation of algae ; 1 A botanist won over by logical positivism: the theory of lifecycles by A. Lindenmayer (1963-1965) ;2 Unusable set of axioms and used set of axioms ;3 From logical theory to automata theory (1966-1967) ;4 The developmental model and the rules of rewriting (1968) ;5 The dispute with Brian Carey Goodwin regarding natural formalisms ;6 Recap: the computer as automata model and deductive machine; Chapter 3: The limitations of biometric models and the transition to simulation in agronomy; 1 The institutional and technical context of the IFCC (1966-1971);2 Transferring a little bit of econometrics to biometrics: a problem of optimization (1974);3 The first application of plant simulation in agronomics (1974-1975) ;4 Fragmented modelling and geometric simulation: de Reffye (1975-1981);5 Simulation, imitation and the sub-symbolic use of formalisms; Chapter 4: A random and universal architectural simulation ; 1 Making headway in botany: the notion of architectural model (1966-1978) ;2 The search for botanical realism (1978-1979) ;3 Criticisms of theoretical models ;4 Criticisms of biometric models ;5 A mixed reception (1979-1981); Chapter 5: Convergence between integrative simulation and computer graphics ; 1 The relaunch of research into architectural simulation (1985-1991) ;2 Jaeger’s thesis: the prefixed model and synthesis of botanical images (1987) ;3 Blaise’s thesis: the simulation of buds parallelism (1991) ;4 How can an integrative simulation be validated?; Chapter 6: Convergence between universal simulation and forestry (1990-1998) ; 1 An epistemological dispute between modellers: INRA and CIRAD ;2 Conceptual and institutional convergence: the CIRAD/INRA partner laboratory (1995);3 The empirical value of simulation ;4 Supra-simulations ; Chapter 7: The remathematization of simulations (from 1998 onwards) ; 1 The first mixed structure-function model: water efficiency (1997-1999) ;2 The parallel evolution of algorithmic simulation: 1984-1994 ;3 Simulating the individual plant in order to observe crop functioning (1997-2000) ;4 The association between AMAP and INRIA: sub-structures and factorization (1998-2006);5 Recap: pluriformalized simulation and convergence between disciplines; Chapter 8: Twenty-one functions of models and three types of simulations – Classifications and applications ; 1 General function, main functions and specific functions of models ;2 General characterization and classification of computer simulations ;3 System simulation, model simulation, system-simulation model and model-simulation model ;4 Applications to different plant models and plant simulations; Conclusion ; Glossary ;Selected Bibliography ;Index of names ;Index of subjects