Forensic Psychology

David A. Crighton is Hon. Professor of Forensic Psychology at Durham University. He was formally Deputy Chief Psychologist in the UK Ministry of Justice. He is a past Chair of the BPS Expert Witness Advisory Group and a past Secretary and Treasurer of the British Psychological Society, Division of Forensic Psychology. Graham J. Towl is Professor of Forensic Psychology, Durham University and visiting Clinical Professor, University of Newcastle. He was formally the Chief Psychologist at the Ministry of Justice, UK, and uniquely is the recipient of BPS awards for Distinguished Contributions to Professional practice and forensic academic knowledge. His research interests are wide currently including suicide in prisons and sexual violence at universities.

• List of Contributors xxiiiChapter 1 Introduction 1Graham J. Towl and David A. CrightonJustice 4Expert Controversies 6Human Rights and Ethics 7Developmental Perspectives 8Investigation and Prosecution Issues 10Psychological Assessment 11Critical Psychology 12Substance Use 13Early Intervention 13Justice Restored 15Note 15Further Reading 16References 16Part 1 Forensic Psychology: LegalChapter 2 Offender Profiling 21David A. CrightonIntroduction 22Historical Development 22Approaches to Offender Profiling 25Criminal investigative analysis 25Crime action profiling 25Investigative psychology 26The Development of Offender Profiling 26Current Evidence on Accuracy 30Conclusions 31Notes 32Further Reading 32References 33Chapter 3 Eyewitness Testimony 36Lorraine Hope and Ryan J. FitzgeraldEyewitness Identification Performance 37The Witnessed Event 39Witness factors 39Super‐recognisers 40Perpetrator factors 40Situational factors 42Between the Witnessed Event and Identification Task 43Retention interval 43Post‐event misinformation 44Intermediate Recognition Tasks 45Mugshots 45Composite production 45The identification task 46Pre‐lineup instructions 46Lineup composition 46Investigator bias 47Lineup procedure: Comparing absolute and relative judgements 48Post‐identification feedback 49Is confidence related to accuracy? 49Is eyewitness identification evidence reliable? 50Procedural Guidelines Relating to Suspect Identification in the United Kingdom 51The Eyewitness in Court 53Conclusions 54Further Reading 54References 55Chapter 4 Jury Decision‐making 66Andreas Kapardis 66Introduction: The Jury Idea 67The Notion of an Impartial and Fair Jury: A Critical Appraisal 68Arguments Against Jury Trials 69Arguments in Favour of Jury Trials 70Methods for Studying Juries/Jurors 71Archival research 71Questionnaire surveys 71Mock juries 72Shadow juries 73Post‐trial juror interviews 73Books by ex‐jurors 74Selecting Jurors 74Pre‐Trial Publicity 75The Reported Importance of Juror Characteristics 76Juror Competence 78Comprehending evidence 78Understanding and following the judge’s instructions/the jury charge 79The Jury Foreperson 79Jury Deliberation 80Small Juries 81Defendant Characteristics 82Victim/Plaintiff Characteristics 82Lawyer and Judge Characteristics 82Courtroom Design 83Hung Juries 83Models of Jury Decision‐making 83Reforming the Jury to Remedy Some of Its Problems 84Alternatives to Trial by Jury 84Conclusions 85Notes 86Further Reading 87References 87Chapter 5 Jury Decision‐making in Rape Trials: An Attitude Problem? 94Dominic Willmott, Daniel Boduszek, Agata Debowska and Lara HudspithIntroduction 95Case study—The girl of Qatif 96Rape and Sexual Offences in the Criminal Justice System 97The prevalence of sexual victimisation 98Rape complaints and attrition 98Jury acquittals at trial 100Jury Decision‐making within Rape Trials 101Arguments against retaining juries in rape trials 102Arguments in favour of retaining juries in rape trials 102Juror Bias and Pre‐trial Attitudes 103Rape myths: Definitions and research 104Common rape myth beliefs 104Rape myths and jury decision‐making: The empirical evidence 105Methodological considerations 109Mock jury trial methodological considerations 110Solutions and reforms 110Conclusions 112Further Reading 113References 113Chapter 6 Psychology in the Courts 120David A. CrightonIntroduction 121Systems of Justice 123The System of Courts 124The courts in England and Wales 124Magistrates’ courts 124Youth courts 124The Crown Court 125The Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) 125The County Court 125The Family Court 125The High Court 125The Courts in Scotland 126Justice of the Peace Courts 126Sheriff Courts 126Sheriff Appeal Court 126The High Court of Justiciary 126The Court of Session 126The Courts in Northern Ireland 127Magistrates’ courts (including youth courts and family proceedings) 127The Crown Court 127The Court of Appeal 127County Courts 127The High Court 127The UK Supreme Court 128Some Other UK Courts and Tribunals 128Court Martial 128Coroners Courts and fatal accident inquiries 128The Parole Boards 129Mental Health Tribunals 129Contributions of Psychology 129Legal Process 131Psychologists’ Evidence in Court 132Giving Evidence 135Conclusions 136Notes 137Further Reading 137References 138Part 2 Forensic Psychology: ClinicalChapter 7 Clinical Assessment 143David A. CrightonConceptual Issues in Assessment 144Classification 145Dimensional approaches 147Diagnosis and formulation 148Assessment 148Hypothesis formulation 148Psychodynamic theory 151Cognitive behavioural theory 152Systemic theory 153Social inequalities theory 153Integrative theories 154Data Gathering 155Interviews 156Psychometric assessments 157Data Analysis 158Reliability 158Validity 159Criterion‐related validity 159Content validity 159Construct validity 159Specificity, sensitivity and power 160Single case analysis 160Clinical Judgements and Biases 161Conclusions 162Notes 163Further Reading 163References 164Chapter 8 Risk Assessment 166David A. CrightonKey Legal Issues 167Key Principles in Risk Assessment 168Approaches to risk assessment 169Risk Assessment Instruments 171Critical Issues in Risk Assessment 175Acceptable risk and rare catastrophic failures 179Conclusions 181Notes 182Further Reading 183References 184Chapter 9 Psychology in Prisons 187David A. Crighton and Graham J. TowlThe Development of Psychology in Prisons 188Developments in England and Wales 192What Psychologists Do in Corrections 193Legal 193Clinical 195Teaching and training 197Research and development 198The future 198Conclusions 200Notes 202Further Reading 203References 203Chapter 10 Forensic Psychology in Mental Health and Social Care 207Phil Willmot and Elizabeth UttingIntroduction 208Forensic Psychology in Mental Health 208The legal framework 209Practical issues 210Cultural issues 210Evidence Base 211Forensic Psychology in Social Care 213The legal framework 213Contributions of forensic psychology to social care 214Systemic issues 215Discussion 216Further Reading 217References 218Chapter 11 The Developmental Evidence Base: Neurobiological Research and Forensic Applications 221Robert A. Schug, Yu Gao, Andrea L. Glenn, Yong Lin Huang, Melissa Peskin, Yaling Yang and Adrian RaineThe Developmental Evidence Base: Neurobiological Research 222Genetics 223Neuroimaging 224Neurology 226Neuropsychology 228Verbal and spatial intelligence 228Executive functioning 229Biological versus social influences 231Psychophysiology 231Heart rate 232Skin conductance 232Electroencephalogram and event‐related potentials 234Endocrinology 236Moral Development 236Nutrition 238Forensic Applications of Developmental Neurobiological Research 239Lie detection 240Legal and judicial process 241Assessment 241Diagnostic identification 241Treatment 242Intervention 243Dangerousness and risk prediction 243Conclusions 244Further Reading 244References 245Chapter 12 The Developmental Evidence Base: Prevention 263David P. FarringtonIntroduction 264Risk‐focused prevention 265What is a risk factor? 265Cost–benefit analysis 266Family‐based Prevention 266Home visiting programmes 267Parent management training 268Other parenting interventions 269Multi‐systemic therapy 270School‐based Prevention 271Pre‐school programmes 271School programmes 272Anti‐bullying programmes 274Peer Programmes 275Skills Training 276Communities That Care 278Recent UK Developments 279Conclusions 280Further Reading 283References 283Chapter 13 The Developmental Evidence Base: Psychosocial Research 294David P. FarringtonIntroduction 295Individual Factors 300Temperament and personality 300Hyperactivity and impulsivity 301Low intelligence and attainment 302Low empathy 303Family Factors 304Child-rearing 304Teenage mothers and child abuse 306Parental conflict and disrupted families 307Criminal parents 309Large family size 310Social Factors 311Socio-economic deprivation 311Peer influences 312School influences 313Community influences 314Conclusions 316Further Reading 317References 318Chapter 14 Desistance from Crime 330Lila Kazemian and David P. FarringtonCurrent State of Knowledge on Desistance 331Social predictors of desistance 331Employment 332Marriage 333Peers 335Military 336Religion and Spirituality 336Substance Use 337Cognitive predictors of desistance 337The role of identity change in the desistance process 339The interaction between social and cognitive factors 340Genetic Factors and Desistance 341Summary 342Conclusions 342Policy relevance of desistance research 342Next steps in desistance research 343Further Reading 344References 345Chapter 15 Crisis Negotiation 350David A. CrightonDevelopment of Crisis Negotiation 351Conceptual Issues in Crisis Negotiation 352Types of critical incidents 352To Negotiate or Not to Negotiate 354Goals of Crisis Negotiation 355Calming the situation 355Process of crisis negotiation 355Communication and rapport building 356Listening 356Showing empathy 357Building rapport 357Developing influence 357Gathering intelligence 358Crisis Negotiation and Terrorism 358Crisis Negotiation during Terrorist Incidents 360The Process of Negotiation with Terrorists 361The Experience of Hostages 361Crisis Negotiation—The Evidence 362Conclusions 365Notes 366Further Reading 366References 367Chapter 16 Terrorism 371Orla LynchIntroduction 372Key Issues—Defining Terrorism 373Labelling 374Is Terrorism a Psychological Issue? 375The Psychology of Terrorism: The State of the Art 376Applying Psychology: The Case of Extremism 380Risk Assessment 382Risk assessment and the case of terrorism 382Intervention 383Proactive Integrated Support Model (PRISM) 386What Does CVE Success Look Like? 387Conclusion 388Notes 388Further Reading 389References 389Chapter 17 Intellectual Disability: Assessment 394David A. CrightonThe Context of Forensic Practice 395Mental Health Legislation 396Learning Disability and Crime 397Pathways into and through offender services 400Childhood adversity and behaviour problems 402Adult psychiatric disorders 403Specific offence types and pathways into services 404Applications of Psychology to Processes within the Justice System 407The process of police interview 407The legal process and offenders with ID 408Working with Offenders with ID 410Assessment issues 410Assessment of anger and aggression 412Assessment for sexual offenders 413Assessment of fire raising 416Risk assessment 417The role of dynamic risk assessment in the management of offenders with ID 419Conclusions on Assessment 420Notes 421Further Reading 421References 422Chapter 18 Intellectual Disability: Treatment and Management 430David A. Crighton and Graham J. TowlTreatment for Specific Needs 433Aggression 433Sexual offending 435Interventions for other offence‐related problems 440Conclusions 442Note 443Further Reading 443References 444Chapter 19 Personality Disorder: Assessment and Treatment 448Conor Duggan and Richard HowardIntroduction 449DSM‐5 Alternative Model 450ICD‐11 451Prototype Matching/SWAP-200 453PD Assessment in Forensic and Correctional Contexts 455Clinical Implications of ICD‐11 457Translating Theory into Practice in the Treatment of PD 457Livesley’s Integrated Modular Treatment 459Ruptures in the Patient–Therapist Relationship 460Will Categories of PD (and Borderline PD in Particular) Survive? 461A Hierarchical Model of Personality Disorder 463Concluding Comments 464Further Reading 465References 465Chapter 20 Personality Disorder and Offending 468Richard Howard and Conor DugganIntroduction 469Some caveats 469PD and offending in community samples 471The ‘comorbidity’ problem 472Comorbidity with ‘psychopathy’ 474Emotional impulsiveness 476The importance of context 476Paranoid thinking and violence 477Paranoia and angry rumination 478Concluding Comments 479Note 480Further Reading 480References 481Chapter 21 The Biopsychosocial Model of Psychopathy 485Nicholas D. ThomsonConstruct of Psychopathy 486Psychopathy and the Biopsychosocial Model 487Biological Contributors to Psychopathy 488Genetics 488Brain structures and function 488Hormones 489Psychological Contributors to Psychopathy 490Childhood psychopathology and temperament 490Personality traits 491Cognitive function 491Social Contributors to Psychopathy 492Psychopathy: The Biopsychosocial Disorder 493Further Reading 493References 494Chapter 22 Personality Disorder: Clinical and Policy Responses and the ‘OPD Pathway’ 499Sarah Skett and Carine LewisWhat Is the OPD Pathway and What Makes It Unique? 500History and context 500Aims, Principles and the Theoretical Model of the OPD Pathway 501The OPD Core Offender Management service and workforce development 504The relational environment and its importance 505Interventions in custody 506Interventions in the community—IIRMS, AP PIPES and Supported Housing 507Conclusion 508Further Reading 508References 509Chapter 23 The Role of Arts in the Criminal Justice System 514Laura CaulfieldIntroduction and Context 515The Arts in Criminal Justice: What Exists and Their Role 515The Arts in Criminal Justice: Their Impact 518Confidence and engagement 519Identity 520Well-being 520Relationships: Collaboration and democracy 521The importance of rehabilitation 522Developing the evidence base 522Summary 524Organisations mentioned in this chapter 524Useful resources 525Notes 525References 525Chapter 24 Substance Use 529David A. CrightonDrugs and Crime 531Assessment of Substance Use Disorders 532Management of Detoxification 533Heroin (and other opiates) 534Stimulants 534Alcohol 534Multiple drug detoxification 535The management of withdrawal in custody 535Treatment 535Cognitive behavioural interventions 536Twelve-step treatments and therapeutic communities 537Drug maintenance and other pharmacotherapies 539Efficacy of Treatments 540Additional Considerations 542Mental health 542Suicide risk 543Overdose 543Physical health risks 543Notes 544Further Reading 544References 545Chapter 25 Sports-based Learning and the Role of Sport in Promoting Education in Prisons 549Rosie MeekEmerging Issues and Ongoing Challenges 553Further Reading 556References 557Chapter 26 Suicide and Self-harm in Prisons: Age, Gender and Ethnicity 560Graham J. TowlSelf-harm 565Suicide Prevention 566Further Reading 570References 570Chapter 27 Suicide, Self-harm and Imprisoned Women 572Tammi WalkerOverview 573Context 573Background 574What Is Prison Suicide? 574Rates of Suicide in Prisoner Populations 575Suicide and Imprisoned Women 576Self-harm and Imprisoned Women 578Risk Factors for Suicide and Self-harm 580Individual 580Mental ill-health 581Prison life 582Preventing Suicide and Self-harm by Imprisoned Women 584Limitations of Suicide Research in Prison Settings 586Conclusion 586Further Reading 587References 587Chapter 28 What Can University Communities Do to Reduce Sexual Violence? Responsibility, Prevention and Response 593Clarissa J. Humphreys and Graham J. TowlIntroduction 594Why Universities Must Address Sexual Violence 595Research-informed Policy and Practice 599Prevention 600Response 602Conclusion 605Notes 606Further Reading 606References 607Chapter 29 Adult Cyber Harassment and Image-based Sexual Abuse 609Afroditi PinaConceptual Challenges and Outline 611Online Non-sexual Harassment 611Cyber harassment/cyberbullying 612Online hate speech 613Trolling 614Doxing (also spelled ‘doxxing’) 615Cyberstalking 615Online Sexual Harassment and Abuse 616Technology-facilitated sexual violence 617Cyber sexual harassment 617Image-based sexual abuse 618Criminalisation/Legislation of Online Harassment Behaviours 620Looking to the Future: Conceptual Harmonisation, Practical Implications and Future Research 622References 624Chapter 30 Intimate Partner Abuse 630Elizabeth A. GilchristKey Issues In IPA 631Key Principles In IPA 632Key Legal Issues 633Theoretical Approaches to IPA 637Biological theories 637Psychological theories 637Sociological: Interpersonal/family systems 637Cultural explanations 638Integrative approaches/multi-factor theories 639Empirical Evidence 640Risk abuse markers 640Gender as a risk factor 642Female offenders 642Risk markers for assault and for lethality 643Measurement of IPA 644Different types of abuser 645Critical Issues in Intimate Partner Abuse 646Victim issues 646IPA risk assessment 647Limitations of risk tools 650Effective interventions for IPA 650Multi-agency responses 652Conclusions 653Further Reading 653References 654Chapter 31 Hate Crime and Hate Incidents at a UK University: Empirical Evidence Informing Policy and Research Practice 662Nadia Siddiqui and Graham J. TowlThe Prevalence of Hate Incidents 666Barriers to Reporting to the Authorities 668Is Race or Religion a Factor in Victimisation? 669Thematic Analysis 669Education 670Increase Victim Support 671Conclusions 672Further Reading 673References 674Chapter 32 Bullying in Prisons: Introducing the Prison Bullying Ecosystem Framework as a Guide for Intervention 676Jane L. Ireland, Carol A. Ireland, Ushna Mian, Raneesha De Silva and Michael LewisPrison Bullying: Summarising Some Key Findings 678Defining prison-based bullying 678Extent of prison-based bullying 679Groups involved 680Understanding Prison Bullying: Introducing Theoretical Perspectives 680Taking Theory and Proposing a Framework for Intervention: Prison Bullying Ecosystem Framework 683Considering ecosystem external factors 684Considering ecosystem internal factors 686Concluding Comments 689References 690Chapter 33 Psychology of Gang Membership: Group Processes, Social Cognition and Mental Health 692Jane L. WoodGang Membership 693Gang Joining 693Gang Members: Delinquency Levels 694Gang Identity and Identifying with the Gang 695Conformity, Pluralistic Ignorance and Cohesion 696Intergroup Conflict and Status Enhancement 697Being a Gang Member: Social Cognitive Processes 698Moral Disengagement 699Offence-supportive Cognitions 700Rumination, Displaced Aggression and Entitativity 702Rumination 702Displaced aggression 703Entitativity 704Gang involvement and mental health 704Conclusions 706Further Reading 707References 707Chapter 34 Arson and Fire Setting: A New Conceptualisation 713Faye HorsleyIntroduction 714Part One 714Background 714The Psychology of Arson and Fire Setting 715Sample composition 715Recidivism and dangerousness 717Characteristics of arsonists and fire setters 718Summary of empirical work 720Theoretical Perspectives 720Typologies 720Multi-factor perspectives 721Problems with the literature 722Part Two 724Non-criminalised fire use 724The Continuum of Fire Use (CoFU) 726Implications and Applications 727Conclusions 728Notes 729Further Reading 729References 729Chapter 35 Trauma-informed Care in the Criminal Justice System 735Tammi WalkerIntroduction 736What Is Trauma? 737Trauma among Men and Women in Prison 740Becoming Trauma Informed 741SAMHSA’s Four ‘R’S’: Key assumptions in the trauma-informedapproach 741SAMHSA’s six key principles of the trauma-informed approach 743SAMHSA’s ten implementation domains for the trauma-informed approach 743Prisons as Trauma-informed Organisations 744Evaluations of Prisons as Trauma-informed Organisations 746Barriers to Trauma-informed Care in Prison 748Conclusion 748Further Reading 749References 749Part 3 Forensic Psychology: Ethics and PoliticsChapter 36 The Politics of Forensic Psychological Research, Policy and Practice 755Graham J. TowlNew Public Management 756Language Use as Forensic Psychologists 758How Does the Way in Which Psychology Is Taught in the United Kingdom Influence the Development of Forensic Psychology? 760A Brief History of Forensic Psychological Internal Politics in the United Kingdom 762Debates around the defining characteristics of the discipline 762Training arrangements 764Statutory regulation of practitioner psychologists 765Conclusions 765Further Reading 766References 767Chapter 37 Aspects of Diagnosed Mental Illness and Offending 769David PilgrimSocial Context of Rule Transgressions: Normal and Abnormal Offenders 770Penal and psychiatric jurisdiction of mentally abnormal offenders 771Overlaps and Tensions between Psychiatric and Psychological Knowledge 772Psychological encounters with ‘mental illness’ in forensic settings 773Traditions of psychiatric and psychological knowledge 774Emergence of the biopsychosocial model and neo-Kraepelinian retrenchment 775Psychological and Psychiatric Approaches to Mental Illness in Forensic Settings 777Problematic Relationship between Diagnosed Mental Illness and Risks 779‘Dual diagnosis’ or ‘comorbidity’ 779Mental illness and risk to others 780Conclusions 783Further Reading 783References 784Chapter 38 Role of Safeguarding in Overcoming Persistent Harmful Practice in Forensic Mental Health 787Brian A. Thomas‐Peter and Rebecca LawdayMoral Blindness in Forensic Mental Health 789Major Inquiries: Lessons Not Learned 791The Failure of Senior Management 797Conclusion 799Notes 800Further Reading 800References 800Chapter 39 Beyond ‘Disorder’: A Manifesto for Psychological Health and Well-being 803Peter KindermanLabels Are for Products, Not People 805Reliability 806Validity 807Can we think of a better phrase than ‘oppositional defiant disorder’? 808A New Approach 809Minimising real problems 811Moving Beyond the Concept of ‘Abnormality’ 811There are alternatives to diagnosis 813Non-diagnostic alternatives 813Recognising causes in the real world 814The drugs don’t work 815Coercion 816Prevention 817Pathways to mental health 819We learn to make sense of the world 819Psychological model of mental health and well-being 821Notes 821Further Reading 821References 822Chapter 40 Ethical Issues in Forensic Psychology 824Graham J. TowlPhilosophical Roots 826Ethical Guidance for Professionals 828APA ethical guidance 830APA specialty guidelines for forensic psychology (2013) 830Psychological Society of Ireland (PSI) code of professional ethics 831BACP—Ethical framework for good practice in counselling and psychotherapy 832HCPC standards of conduct, performance and ethics (2016) 833BPS code of ethics and conduct (2018) 833Specialist BPS forensic guidance 834Power Relationships 834Conclusions 836Note 837Further Reading 837References 838Name Index 841Subject Index 849