Environmental Psychology

Linda Steg is professor of Environmental Psychology at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. Judith I. M. de Groot is a Senior Lecturer in Sustainable Consumer Behaviour at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

• List of Figures xixList of Tables xxiList of Boxes xxiiList of Contributors xxiv1 Environmental Psychology: History, Scope, and Methods 1Linda Steg, Agnes E. van den Berg, and Judith I. M. de Groot1.1 Introduction 21.2 History of the Field 21.2.1 Towards ‘Architectural’ Psychology 31.2.2 Towards a Green Psychology 41.3 Current Scope and Characteristics of the Field 41.3.1 Interactive Approach 41.3.2 Interdisciplinary Collaboration 51.3.3 Problem‐Focused Approach 51.3.4 Diversity of Methods 61.4 Main Research Methods in Environmental Psychology 61.4.1 Questionnaire Studies 71.4.2 Laboratory Experiments 81.4.3 Computer Simulation Studies 81.4.4 Field Studies 91.4.5 Case Studies 91.5 Overview of the Book 10Glossary 10Suggestions for Further Reading 11Review Questions 11PART I ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND WELL-BEING 132 Environmental Risk Perception 15Gisela Böhm and Carmen Tanner2.1 Introduction 162.2 What are Environmental Risks? 162.3 Subjective Risk Judgements 172.3.1 Heuristics and Biases in Risk Judgements 172.3.2 Temporal Discounting of Environmental Risks 192.3.3 The Psychometric Paradigm 192.4 Risk, Values, and Morality 192.4.1 Values 202.4.2 Morality and Ethics 212.5 Emotional Reactions to Environmental Risks 222.6 Summary 23Glossary 23Suggestions for Further Reading 24Review Questions 253 Climate Change as a Unique Environmental Problem 26Janet K. Swim and Lorraine Whitmarsh3.1 Introduction 273.2 Public Understanding of Climate Change 273.3 Assessing the Risk of Climate Change 283.3.1 Detecting a Problem 303.3.2 Interpretations of Problems 313.3.3 Accepting Responsibility and Taking Action 323.4 Summary 33Glossary 33Suggestions for Further Reading 34Review Questions 354 Environmental Stress 36Elena Bilotta, Uchita Vaid, and Gary W. Evans4.1 Introduction 374.2 Conceptualizations of Stress 374.3 Effects of Environmental Stress 384.3.1 Noise 384.3.2 Crowding 404.3.3 Poor Housing Quality 414.3.4 Poor Neighbourhood Quality 424.3.5 Traffic Congestion 424.4 Summary 43Glossary 43Acknowledgements 44Suggestions for Further Reading 44Review Questions 445 Scenic Beauty: Visual Landscape Assessment and Human Landscape Perception 45Mari S. Tveit, Åsa Ode Sang, and Caroline M. Hagerhall5.1 Introduction 465.2 Visual Quality Assessment 465.3 Theories Explaining Landscape Preferences as Innate or Learnt 475.4 Measuring and Mapping Scenic Beauty 505.5 Methodological Developments 515.6 Summary 52Glossary 52Suggestions for Further Reading 53Review Questions 546 Health Benefits of Nature 55Agnes E. van den Berg,Yannick Joye, and Sjerp de Vries6.1 Introduction 566.2 What is Health and How can it be Measured? 576.3 What is Nature and How can it be Measured? 576.4 Nature and Clinical Health 586.5 Green Space and Public Health 596.6 Mechanisms Linking Nature to Health 606.6.1 Air Quality 616.6.2 Physical Activity 616.6.3 Social Cohesion 626.6.4 Stress Reduction 626.7 Summary 63Glossary 63Suggestions for Further Reading 64Review Questions 647 Restorative Environments 65Yannick Joye and Agnes E. van den Berg7.1 Introduction 667.2 Restorative Environments Research 667.2.1 Stress Recovery Theory 677.2.2 Attention Restoration Theory 687.3 The Evolutionary Origins of Restorative Nature Experiences 697.4 Recent Theoretical and Empirical Developments 707.4.1 Perceptual Fluency Account 707.4.2 Connectedness to Nature 707.4.3 Micro‐Restorative Experiences and Instorative Effects 727.5 Applications and Implications 727.6 Summary 73Glossary 73Suggestions for Further Reading 75Review Questions 758 Ambivalence Towards Nature and Natural Landscapes 76Agnes E. van den Berg and Cecil C. Konijnendijk8.1 Introduction 778.2 Historical Overview 778.3 Emotional Impacts and Meanings of Natural Environment Experience 788.4 Views of Nature and Landscape Preferences 798.5 The Role of Biodiversity 808.6 An Existential‐Motivational Account 818.7 Practical Implications 828.8 Summary 83Glossary 83Suggestions for Further Reading 84Review Questions 849 Human Dimensions of Wildlife 85Maarten H. Jacobs, Jerry J. Vaske, Tara L. Teel, and Michael J. Manfredo9.1 Introduction 869.2 Early Work: Attitudes Towards Wildlife 869.3 The Cognitive Hierarchy 879.4 Wildlife Value Orientations 899.5 Predicting Norms and Attitudes Towards Wildlife 919.6 Emotions Towards Wildlife 919.7 Summary 93Glossary 93Suggestions for Further Reading 94Review Questions 9410 Children and the Natural Environment 95Karin Tanja‐Dijkstra, Jolanda Maas, Janke van Dijk‐Wesselius, and Agnes van den Berg10.1 Introduction 9610.2 Childhood Experiences with Nature 9610.3 Nature and Children’s Health and Well‐Being 9810.3.1 Physical Health Benefits 9910.3.2 Mental Health Benefits 9910.3.3 Cognitive Benefits 10010.4 Childhood Nature Experiences and Adult Environmentalism 10110.5 Applications and Implications 10110.6 Summary 102Glossary 102Suggestions for Further Reading 103Review Questions 10311 Appraising and Designing Built Environments that Promote Well‐Being and Healthy Behaviour 104Robert Gifford and Lindsay J. McCunn11.1 Introduction 10511.2 Aesthetic Appraisals of Architecture 10511.2.1 Uniformities in the Appraisal of Built Space 10511.2.2 Observer Differences 10711.2.3 Meaning in Architecture 10811.3 Three Building Design Approaches that Promote Well‐Being and Healthy Behaviour in Buildings 10811.3.1 Social Design 10811.3.2 Biophilic Design 11011.3.3 Evidence‐Based Design 11111.4 Summary 111Glossary 111Suggestions for Further Reading 112Review Questions 11212 Urban Environmental Quality 113Mirilia Bonnes, Massimiliano Scopelliti, Ferdinando Fornara, and Giuseppe Carrus12.1 Introduction 11412.2 Urban Settings as a Source of Stress and Discomfort 11512.3 Urban Settings as a Source of Well‐Being and Restoration 11612.4 Residential Satisfaction – A Multicomponent Concept 11712.5 A Multidimensional Approach to Urban Environmental Quality 11712.6 The Multi‐Place Approach 12012.7 Summary 121Glossary 121Suggestions for Further Reading 122Review Questions 12213 Environment and Quality of Life 123Goda Perlaviciute and Linda Steg13.1 Introduction 12413.2 QoL: Objective and Subjective Measures 12513.3 QoL: Unidimensional and Multidimensional Measures 12613.4 Environment and QoL: Research Overview 12713.4.1 Which QoL Aspects are most Important? 12713.4.2 To What Extent is QoL Sustained in Certain Situations? 12913.4.3 How Does QoL Differ with Varying Environmental Conditions? 13013.4.4 How Do Environmental Transformations Influence QoL? 13113.5 Summary 133Glossary 133Suggestions for Further Reading 134Review Questions 13414 Place Attachment 135Lynne C. Manzo and Patrick Devine‐Wright14.1 Introduction 13614.2 Theories and Models of Place Attachment 13714.2.1 Components of Place Attachment 13714.2.2 Types of Place Attachments 13814.2.3 Place Attachments Involve an Array of Emotions 13814.2.4 Place Attachments as Dynamic and Socially Produced 13914.3 Applications of Place Attachment 14014.4 Summary 142Glossary 142Suggestions for Further Reading 143Review Questions 14315 How Cues in the Environment Affect Normative Behaviour 144Siegwart Lindenberg15.1 Introduction 14515.2 Overarching Goals and their Relative Strengths 14615.3 Environmental Cues that Directly Strengthen the Normative Goal 14815.4 Environmental Cues that Directly Weaken the Normative Goal 14915.5 Indirect Weakening of the Normative Goal by Environmental Cues that Strengthen the Gain Goal 15015.6 Indirect Weakening of the Normative Goal by Environmental Cues that Strengthen the Hedonic Goal 15115.7 Summary 152Glossary 152Suggestions for Further Reading 153Review Questions 153PART II FACTORS INFLUENCING ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR 15516 Measuring Environmental Behaviour 157Birgitta Gatersleben16.1 Introduction 15816.2 What to Measure? Behaviour or Impact 15816.2.1 Environmental Behaviour 15816.2.2 Environmental Impact 15916.3 How to Measure Environmental Behaviour? 16216.4 Multidimensional or Unidimensional Measures of Environmental Behaviour 16316.4.1 Multidimensional Measures of Environmental Behaviour 16316.4.2 A Unidimensional Measure of Environmental Behaviour 16416.5 Summary 165Glossary 165Suggestions for Further Reading 166Review Questions 16617 Values and Pro‐Environmental Behaviour 167Judith I.M. de Groot and John Thøgersen17.1 Introduction 16817.2 Values 16817.3 Value Theories 16917.3.1 Social Value Orientations 16917.3.2 Schwartz’s Value Theory 16917.3.3 Four Key Values for Pro‐Environmental Behaviour 17117.4 How Values Affect Environmental Behaviour 17317.5 Related Concepts 17417.6 Practical Relevance of Value Research 17617.7 Summary 176Glossary 177Suggestions for Further Reading 177Review Questions 17818 Social Norms and Pro‐Environmental Behaviour 17Kees Keizer and P. Wesley Schultz18.1 Introduction 18018.2 What is a Social Norm? 18018.3 How Influential are Norms on Behaviour? 18118.4 Why Do People Conform to Norms? 18218.5 When Do Norms Influence Behaviour? 18218.5.1 Salience 18218.5.2 Group Size 18318.5.3 Reference Groups 18418.5.4 Personal Norms 18418.5.5 Norm Conflict and the Importance of Aligned Messages 18518.6 Summary 187Glossary 188Suggestions for Further Reading 188Review Questions 18819 Emotions and Pro‐Environmental Behaviour 189Danny Taufik and Leonie Venhoeven19.1 Introduction 19019.2 Emotions as a Motive for Action 19119.3 Hedonic and Eudaimonic View on Emotions 19219.4 Why Pro‐Environmental Behaviour Elicits Positive Emotions: A Closer Look at the Eudaimonic View 19419.5 Summary 196Glossary 196Suggestions for Further Reading 197Review Questions 19720 Symbolic Aspects of Environmental Behaviour 198Birgitta Gatersleben and Ellen van der Werff20.1 Introduction 19920.2 Identity 19920.2.1 Environmental Self‐Identity and Behaviour 20020.2.2 Factors Influencing Identity 20120.3 Impression Management 20320.4 Summary 205Glossary 205Suggestions for Further Reading 206Review Questions 20621 Social Dilemmas: Motivational, Individual, and Structural Aspects Influencing Cooperation 207Chris von Borgstede, Lars‐Olof Johansson, and Andreas Nilsson21.1 Introduction 20821.2 Defining Social Dilemmas 20821.3 Types of Social Dilemmas 20921.3.1 Large‐Scale Dilemmas 20921.3.2 Resource Dilemmas 20921.3.3 Public Good Dilemmas 21021.4 Motives in Social Dilemmas 21021.4.1 Greed 21021.4.2 Efficiency 21121.4.3 Fairness 21221.5 Factors Promoting Cooperation 21221.5.1 Group Size 21321.5.2 Communication 21321.5.3 Response Efficacy 21321.5.4 Environmental Uncertainty 21421.5.5 Social Uncertainty 21421.5.6 Norms in Large‐Scale Dilemmas 21421.6 Summary 215Glossary 215Suggestions for Further Reading 216Review Questions 21622 Theories to Explain Environmental Behaviour 217Linda Steg and Annika Nordlund22.1 Introduction 21822.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour 21822.3 Protection Motivation Theory 22022.4 The Norm Activation Model 22122.5 The Value‐Belief‐Norm Theory of Environmentalism 22322.6 Goal‐Framing Theory 22422.7 Summary 225Glossary 226Suggestions for Further Reading 227Review Questions 22723 The Role of Group Processes in Environmental Issues, Attitudes, and Behaviours 228Lise Jans and Kelly Fielding23.1 Introduction 22923.2 Why Should Environmental Psychologists be Interested in Group Processes? 22923.3 How the Social Identity Approach Explains Environmental Conflict 23023.4 Why Social Identity Guides Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours 23123.4.1 Group Norms Guide Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours 23223.4.2 Group Members Influence Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours 23323.4.3 Group Identification Influences Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours 23423.5 Why Social Identity can Affect Cooperation on Environmental Issues 23423.6 How the Social Identity Approach Explains Environmental Group Formation 23523.7 Summary 236Glossary 236Suggestions for Further Reading 237Review Questions 23724 Yesterday’s Habits Preventing Change for Tomorrow? About the Influence of Automaticity on Environmental Behaviour 238Christian A. Klöckner and Bas Verplanken24.1 Introduction 23924.2 Theoretical Background: How Habits are Acquired 24024.3 Narrowing Down Decision‐Making: How Habits Affect Information Use 24124.4 Measuring Habits: A Challenge for Research 24324.5 Breaking Bad Habits, Creating Good Habits: Interventions Changing Routine Behaviour 24624.6 Summary 248Glossary 248Suggestions for Further Reading 249Review Questions 25025 Environmental Psychology in Latin America 251Javier Urbina‐Soria and Emilio Moyano‐Díaz25.1 Introduction 25225.2 Latin American Background 25225.3 Past Reviews on Environmental Psychology in Latin America 25325.4 Recent Developments in Environmental Psychology in Latin America 25425.5 Key Issues for the Development of Research in Latin America 25625.5.1 Lack of Collaboration 25625.5.2 Few Possibilities to Publish in Spanish or Portuguese 25725.5.3 Academic Training in Environmental Psychology 25725.6 Summary 258Glossary 258Suggestions for Further Reading 259Review Questions 259PART III ENCOURAGING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR 26126 Informational Strategies to Promote Pro‐Environmental Behaviour: Changing Knowledge, Awareness, and Attitudes 263Wokje Abrahamse and Ellen Matthies26.1 Introduction 26426.2 Interventions: From Research to Implementation 26426.3 Informational Strategies 26526.3.1 Provision of Information 26526.3.2 Goal Setting 26626.3.3 Commitment 26726.3.4 Prompting 26826.3.5 Feedback 26826.4 Intervention Research: Some General Issues 26926.5 Summary 270Glossary 271Suggestions for Further Reading 271Review Questions 27227 Encouraging Pro‐Environmental Behaviour with Rewards and Penalties 273Jan Willem Bolderdijk, Philip K. Lehman, and E. Scott Geller27.1 Introduction 27427.2 Analysis of Consequences 27427.3 Natural Versus Extra Consequences 27627.4 When is it Appropriate to Apply Extra Consequences? 27727.5 How Should Extra Consequences be Announced and Delivered? 27827.5.1 Negative Versus Positive Consequences 27927.5.2 Monetary Versus Non‐Monetary Consequences 27927.6 Summary 281Glossary 281Suggestions for Further Reading 282Review Questions 28228 Persuasive Technology to Promote Pro‐Environmental Behaviour 283Cees Midden and Jaap Ham28.1 Introduction 28428.2 Technology and Behaviour 28428.3 Persuasive Technology 28528.4 Approaches to Applying Persuasive Technology 28628.5 Social Influence through Smart Systems 28728.5.1 The Role of Social Cues 28728.5.2 Reactance 28828.6 Providing Persuasive Experiences 28928.7 Persuasive Technology as a Tool to Promote Behaviour Change 28928.7.1 Ambient Persuasion 29028.7.2 Group Interventions 29128.8 Summary 292Glossary 293Suggestions for Further Reading 293Review Questions 29429 Acceptability of Environmental Policies 295Geertje Schuitema and Cecilia J. Bergstad29.1 Introduction 29629.2 Acceptability as a Social Dilemma 29629.3 Theoretical Framework to Explain the Acceptability of Policy Measures 29729.3.1 Individual Policy Outcomes 29829.3.2 Collective Policy Outcomes 29829.3.3 Fair Distribution of Policy Outcomes 30029.4 Procedural Fairness and Acceptability of Environmental Policies 30229.5 How can Public Support Increase Over Time? An Illustration 30329.6 Summary 305Glossary 305Suggestions for Further Reading 306Review Questions 30630 Processes of Change 307Sebastian Bamberg and Maxie Schulte30.1 Introduction 30830.2 Lewin’s Theory of Change 30830.3 Behavioural Change: A Self‐Regulation Process Steered by Feedback Loops 30930.3.1 Goals as Reference Values in a Feedback Loop 30930.3.2 Hierarchical Organization of Goals and Feedback Loops 30930.3.3 The Importance of Self‐Focus 31130.4 Behavioural Change: It Takes Time to Overcome Resistance to Change 31130.5 The Stage Model of Self‐Regulated Behavioural Change 31230.6 Implications for Interventions 31430.7 Empirical Validation of the SSBC 31530.8 Summary 316Glossary 317Suggestions for Further Reading 318Review Questions 31831 Simulating Social Environmental Systems 319Wander Jager and Nick Gotts31.1 Introduction 32031.2 An Introduction to Social Complexity 32031.3 Social Simulation as a Methodology 32131.4 Social Simulation of Environmental Behaviour 32231.4.1 Using Theory in Simulation Models: Formalizing Processes of Attitude Change 32231.4.2 Using Theory and Data in Models: Diffusion of Environmental Innovations 32331.5 Integrating Social Simulation into Environmental Modelling 32431.5.1 The Lakeland Study 32431.5.2 Companion Modelling: A Study of Rice Production and Labour Migrations in North‐East Thailand 32531.5.3 Integrating Multiple Models of a Socioenvironmental System: Water Use in the Danube Basin 32631.6 Key Steps in Building Agent‐Based Models 32731.6.1 Development of Models 32731.6.2 Using Models 32731.7 Summary 328Glossary 328Suggestions for Further Reading 329Review Questions 32932 Environmental Issues in Low‐ and Middle‐Income Countries 330Nadja Contzen, Hans‐Joachim Mosler, and Silvie Kraemer‐Palacios32.1 Introduction 33132.2 Environmental Risk Perception, Environmental Concern, and Climate Change Perception 33132.2.1 Environmental Risk Perception 33132.2.2 Environmental Concern 33232.2.3 Climate Change Perception 33232.3 Residential Environment and Well‐Being 33332.3.1 Slums and Public Housing 33332.3.2 Communal Spaces 33432.3.3 Rural Communities 33432.4 Behaviour and Behaviour Change 33432.4.1 Resource Conservation 33532.4.2 Sustainable Transportation 33532.4.3 Recycling 33532.4.4 Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene 33732.5 Summary 338Glossary 339Suggestions for Further Reading 339Review Questions 34033 Conclusion: Summary, Trends, and Future Perspectives in Environmental Psychology 341Agnes E. van den Berg and Linda Steg33.1 Summary and Key Findings 34233.1.1 Part I: Environmental Influences on Human Behaviour and Well‐Being 34233.1.2 Part II: Factors Influencing Environmental Behaviour 34333.1.3 Part III: Encouraging Pro‐Environmental Behaviour 34433.2 General Trends and Developments 34533.2.1 Positive Interactions Between Humans and Environments 34533.2.2 Integrative Approaches 34633.2.3 From One Psychology to Multiple Psychologies 34633.3 Challenges for Future Research 34733.3.1 Further Integration 34833.3.2 Further Development of Theories and Methods 34933.3.3 Further Engagement 349Glossary 351Suggestions for Further Reading 351Review Questions 351References 352Index 407