Drawing connections between the medieval and early modern papacy, this study give vivid examples of its reactive rather than proactive character. D. L. d'Avray identifies unobvious continuities and challenges temporal divides, tracing themes that cut through the conventional periodisation. Using fresh translations and transcriptions of sources from Roman archives, alongside key passages from medieval canon law commentaries, the book defends the central thesis that papal government was predominantly 'responsive' and papal authority was not imposed from the top but emerged through a series of appeals and responses. D'Avray focuses on religious governance, rather than on the secular aspects of papal power, so the book challenges an exaggerated emphasis on the papal states. Offering a sequel to Debating Papal History, c. 250-c. 1300, this volume presents a different way of thinking about papal history over a long period.