WTO Law and Trade Policy Reform for Low-Carbon Technology Diffusion

Zaker Ahmad obtained his Dr. iur. from the World Trade Institute at Bern in 2020. He is an Assistant Professor of Law at the University of Chittagong in Bangladesh.

• AcknowledgmentsList of Boxes and FiguresAbbreviations and AcronymsIntroduction1 Climate Technology, Trade, and the Doctrine of Common ConcernI Mitigation of Climate Change: Fact vs. LawII The LCTs as an Important Puzzle PieceA Technology in Mitigation PathwaysB The Concept and Scope of LCTsIII International Trade for Low-carbon Technology DiffusionA Aspects of the Relationship between Trade and TechnologyB The Disconnect between Trade and Climate Legal RegimesC Fragmentation, or Regime InteractionsD Paths that Lead to Coherence BuildingIV Common Concern of Humankind: History and MeaningA Inception and Evolution of the NotionB Making of a Common ConcernC Legal ConsequenceV Towards a New DoctrineA A Dynamic Gateway for ‘Common Concerns’B Enhanced Legal ConsequencesC Forward EvolutionVI Application in the Trade-climate InterfaceA Terms of Relationship with Key NotionsB Implications for Low-carbon Technology DiffusionVII Conclusion2 Rules and Facts on Low-Carbon Technology DiffusionI The Origin of the Polemics on Technology TransferA Unsuccessful Code NegotiationsB Regime Specific TrendsII Developments in the Climate RegimeA Evolution of Institutional FrameworksB Evolution of Financial Support SystemsC Other Avenues Contributing to Low-carbon Technology DiffusionD Summary AnalysisIII Growing Empirical Understanding of Technology Diffusion BarriersA Studies on the Relevance of Intellectual Property RightsB Sector and Country-Focused StudiesC Technology Barriers Perceived by Developing CountriesD Summary AnalysisIV Developments in Trade RegulationA Existing Multilateral RulesB Negotiations and Deliberations at the WTO and UNCTADC Trade Disputes Regarding Technology Transfer and RenewablesD Non-multilateral ApproachesE Summary AnalysisV Conclusion3 Towards a Cooperation Based Trade Action AgendaI ‘Common Concern’ as a Guide to Trade CooperationA The Challenge of Cooperation and Common Concern DoctrineB Key Issues Regarding a Novel Duty to CooperateII Cooperation Regarding Low-carbon Technology DiffusionA Outline of the ProposalB Identifying Actors and Respective MotivationsC Identifying Relevant MeasuresD A New BalanceE Ensuring ComplianceIII Implementing the New ApproachA Overcoming Political InertiaB Tasks at the Multilateral LevelC Incorporation in Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs)D Domestic ActionsIV Conclusion4 Assisting the Diffusion of Low- Carbon Technology through Emission PricingI Pricing Emission using Taxes and Tariffs: A Brief IntroductionA Rationale behind Carbon Pricing for Technology DiffusionB Design Considerations for an Effective and Equitable MeasureC The Need for International CooperationD The Measure ProposedII WTO Eligibility of a Carbon Pricing MeasureA Eligibility of Carbon TaxesB Eligibility of Carbon TariffsIII Discriminatory Impact of Carbon PricingA Product Comparability: The Test of ‘Likeness’B Standard of Discrimination: Change in Conditions of CompetitionC Justifying the Pricing MeasuresIV Alternate Reading Aided by Common ConcernA Regarding the Test of ‘Likeness’B Regarding the Legal Standard of DiscriminationC Regarding the General ExceptionV Conclusion5 Encouraging Technology Export through Public Financial SupportI Prospects and Challenges of Public Financial SupportA The Problem and Potential of Public FinanceB Possible Avenues of Public SupportC The Promise and Challenge of the Export Credit Agencies (ECAS)D The Proposed MeasureII ECA Activities and the WTO Subsidies AgreementA The Key QuestionsB Scope of the AgreementC Export Incentive and Regulation on Prohibited SubsidiesD Other Challenges to the Export Promotion IncentivesIII Looking Forward: Role of Common ConcernA As an Aid to InterpretationB As a Guide for ReformC Cooperation and Homework AvenuesIV Conclusion6 Unilateral Trade Sanctions to Secure Compliance with the Common Concern DoctrineI The Domain of Unilateral Trade SanctionsA Arguments in Favour of Unilateral SanctionsB Concerns Regarding Unilateral SanctionsII Countermeasures and Common Concern of Clean Technology DiffusionA Recap of the Doctrine’s PositionB Operational SpecificationsIII Position under Public International LawIV Position under the Multilateral Trade RulesA Trade Sanctions under the Exception ClausesV Way Forward: Influence of Common ConcernVI ConclusionConclusion: Summary and OutlookI International Trade, Clean Technologies and Common ConcernA Trade Cooperation for Technology DiffusionB Role of Domestic Trade Policy MeasuresC Utility of Unilateral Trade CountermeasuresII Lessons Learnt about the DoctrineIII OutlookAnnex – Scope of Clean TechnologiesBibliographyIndex