World of Opportunities

Martin Grapendaal is a social and organizational psychologist. Since 1984 he has been a researcher at the Research and Documentation Center (RDC) of The Ministry of Justice in the Netherlands, specializing in prison and drug research. Ed Leuw is a criminologist, currently employed by the RDC. His research and publications are mainly in the field of social and judicial drug policy and drug related crime. Hans Nelen is a criminologist and lawyer. Since 1986 he has been a researcher at the RDC, mainly involved in police and drug research. Recently, he has been active in the field of fraud and victimology.

• Acknowledgments Chapter 1  Introduction Goals and Research QuestionsThe Drug-Political ContextNormalization of Illegal Drug UseRejecting a "War on Drugs"Dutch Drug Laws and Law Enforcement PolicyEpidemiology of Deviant Drug AddictionPrinciples of Dutch Social Drugs Policy:Towards a Cultural Integration of Drug Problems.Chapter 2  The Connection Between Drug Use and Crime: Facts and Explanations Empirical Connection Between Drug Use and CrimeA Historical and Ecological PerspectiveComparisons Between GroupsIndividual Connection Between Drug Use and CrimeExplanationsThe Perspective of CausalityThe Perspective of FunctionalityChapter 3  Careers in Deviancy and Drugs Starting to Use Hard DrugsSocial-Economic BackgroundPlace of BirthPrimary Phase of Socialization: Family and ChildhoodSecondary Phase of Socialization: Education, Friends, Starting on DrugsCourse of a Drug CareerA Theoretical Model of DevelopmentThe Building of a Drug Career: From Recreational User to Full-Time JunkieDismantling a Drug Career: The Addict Calms Down and Looks for a Way OutContinuity of criminal patterns in life historiesVery Criminal Prior to First Drug Use"Moderately Criminal" Prior to First Drug UseNoncriminal Prior to First Drug UseConclusionChapter 4  The Amsterdam Drug Scene The Drug Scene in Amsterdam's Inner CityActors in the Scene and Their Mutual RelationshipsInteractions Between AddictsInteractions Between Addicts and PublicConcluding remarksChapter 5  Income Acquisition Ways of Acquiring IncomeSocial SecurityAcquisitive CrimeThe Market of White and BrownThe Business of Prostitution and SexMiscellaneousIncome in KindA Quantitative Picture of IncomeDifferent Sources of Income and Their Relationship.The Figures for Amsterdam Compared with Other StudiesA Closer Look at the Different OffensesPeriods of Abstinence and Income from CrimeAn Economic TypologyConstruction of the TypologyIllustrations of the TypologyThe Typology in TimeSummary and ConclusionsChapter 6  Spending and Drug Use SpendingCategories of ExpenditureExpenditure in FiguresDrug UseHeroin and CocainePsychopharmaca, Alcohol, and CannabisLittle-Used DrugsMethods of Drug TakingThe Functions of the Different Drugs in the SceneThe Function of HeroinThe Function of CocaineThe Functions of PsychopharmacaPatterns of UsePolydrug UseVariability in ConsumptionSummary and ConclusionsChapter 7  Methadone Maintenance, Illegal Drug Use, and Acquisitive Crime. Methadone Maintenance Programs and Crime: The TheoryMethadone and Crime According to the Orthodox Theory of Methadone MaintenanceMethadone Maintenance and a Reduction in CrimeMethadone Maintenance and Nonreduction in CrimeMethadone Maintenance Programs in AmsterdamMethadone Use and the Use of Illegal DrugsMethadone UseMethadone and the (Illegal) Use of Heroin and CocaineThe Distribution of Methadone and CrimeThe Distribution of Methadone and the Economic TypologySummary and ConclusionsChapter 8  Conclusions, Theoretical Implications, and Possible Policy Consequences The Most Important ResultsThe Relationship Between Drug Use and CrimePossible Policy ConsequencesTwo Radical Policy ModelsReformation of Drug PolicyEpilogue Some Considerations for the International Prohibitionistic Policy PerspectiveAppendix MethodologyNature of the DataWeekly QuestionnaireReliability and Validity of Research DataA Closer Look at the SampleReferences Index