Water

Edward G. Bellinger is the former Chair of the Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy at Central European University in Vienna (Austria). He is the former Director of Pollution and Environmental Studies in the School of Biological Sciences at Manchester University (UK).

• About the Author xiPreface xiiiAcknowledgements xvIntroduction 1References 51 Our History with Water: What Can Be Learned from Past Water-based Communities 7Mesopotamia 8Qanats 11Egypt 12Ancient Greece 14Classical Greece and Roman 16Roman Empire 16Ancient American Civilisations 20Some of the Changes from the Thirteenth to Nineteenth Centuries 23What Can We Learn from These Ancient Approaches to Water Management? 25References 272 Water Movement in Time and Space 31Atmospheric Water, Clouds and Precipitation 36Spatial Variations in Precipitation and Run-off 37Groundwater 42Water Movement Through Evaporation and Precipitation 44Glaciers, Ice Fields and Snow Melt 45Groundwater 47Rivers, Lakes and Reservoirs 50Rivers 50Lakes 52Lakes and Reservoirs 57References 593 Human Needs and Water Demands. How Much Water Do We Need? 63Our Basic Water Needs 64Our Right to Water 65Basic Water Requirements 69Factors Driving Water Demand 70Water Withdrawals and Use in the United States 71Sectoral Water Demand and Consumption 77Agriculture 77Energy 80Industry 82Humans and Human Settlements 82Water Abstractions and Use in Europe 86References 884 Water Resources 93The Driving Forces Behind the Global Climate 99Evaporation and Precipitation 102Glacier and Snowmelt 103Groundwater 105Surface Freshwater Resources 111Lakes and Reservoirs 115Sand Dams 117Rainwater and Fog Harvesting 119Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Use 124Rainwater Quality 124Floods and Droughts 125Floods 125Droughts 129References 1315 Water Scarcity 135What Is Water Scarcity? 136Our Right to Water 137Water Availability, Demand and Allocation 138Industry Demands 141Municipal Water Demands 141Water Demands for Agriculture 141Estimating Freshwater Availability and Scarcity Using Indices 142Falkenmark Index 144Water Poverty Index (WPI) 145Access 146Water Quality and Availability 146Water for Agriculture and Other Productive Activities 146Capacity to Manage Water 147Environmental Aspects 147Questions of Spatial Scale 147The Social Water Stress Index 152Water Resources Vulnerability Index (WRVI) 153Water Resources Availability and Food (Especially Cereals Imports) 154Index of Local Relative Water Use and Reuse 154Watershed Sustainability Index and Water Resources Vulnerability Index 156Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) 157References 1646 Water Quality: Some Management and Use Issues 169Added Nutrients and Eutrophication 174Phosphorus 181Controlling Nutrient Inputs 182Nitrogen 183Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Blooms 191Mitigation of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Inputs to the Environment 193Artificial Mixing 198Dredging 200Algicides 200Examples of European and United States Regulations and Regulatory Authorities Responsible for Water 202Local Water Agencies 209Municipal Water Departments 209Water and Sewer Districts 209Flood-control Districts 209Mutual Ditch and Irrigation Companies 209Regional Water Agencies 210Conservancy Districts 210Natural Resource Districts 210Groundwater Management Districts as in Kansas 210State Water Agencies 210Multistate Water Agencies 211Missouri River Basin Association 211The Ogallala Aquifer 212References 2157 Drinking Water Treatment 221Aims for Provision of Drinking Water and Sanitation 222Drinking Water Treatment 233Pre-treatment 241Screens 241Filtration 247Sand Pre-filters 248Activated Carbon 251Ion Exchange 252Membrane Filters 253Microfiltration 256Ultrafiltration 257Nanofiltration 257Reverse Osmosis 258Membrane Integrity 258Backwashing 258Coagulation and Flocculation 259Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) 261Slow Sand Filtration 266Chemical and Microbiological Actions 269Natural Organic Matter 270Arsenic removal 274Cleaning a Slow Sand Filter 276Disinfection 277Ultraviolet Radiation 277Ozone 279Chlorine 281Disinfection By-products of Chlorination 283Sodium Hypochlorite and Calcium Hypochlorite Disinfectants 283General Considerations for Disinfection 284References 2858 Wastewater Treatment 291Preliminary Treatment: Screening and Grit Removal 296Storm Water 298Primary Sedimentation 298Activated Sludge (AS) Process 299Diffused Air 299Surface Aeration 301Vertical Shaft Rotors 301Horizontal Shaft Aerators 302Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids 304Biological Filtration 304Possible Problems with Filters 308Humus Tanks (Secondary Sedimentation Tanks) 309Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) 310Sludge Treatment and Disposal 311Waste Stabilisation Pond Treatment 312Anaerobic Ponds 314Facultative Ponds 314Maturation Ponds 315Water Storage and Treatment Reservoirs 315Constructed Wetlands (CWs) 316Vertical Flow Wetlands 318Septic Tanks 321Disposal of Sewage Sludge 322Incineration 322Disposal to Land 323Disposal to Agriculture 324References 3279 Climate Change and Its Implications for Freshwater in the Future 331Impacts on Human Settlements 338Precipitation 340Streamflow 342Groundwater 344Changes in Water Quality 344Droughts 345Climate Change and Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecosystems 348Inland Fisheries 350Effects on Agriculture and Food 352References 35410 Sustainability: The Way Ahead and Can We Achieve It – A Summary 361Virtual Water and Water Footprint 365Reducing Water Demand 367Domestic Water Saving Strategies 370References 373Glossary 377Index 383