ROBERT A. JOHNSON, BSC, MSC, PHD (UQ) is a lecturer in Physical Chemistry and Chemical Technology at Queensland University of Technology. Prior to entering academia he was a Research Director at Syrinx Research Institute where he oversaw the development of Osmotic Distillation from a laboratory novelty to the pilot plant stage. MINH H. NGUYEN, BE, GRAD DIP, MSC (UNSW), PHD (UTS) is a Conjoint Associate Professor at the University of Newcastle and an Adjunct Associate Professor at Western Sydney University. He has a lifetime of experience in scientific research and development in industry, research laboratories and university. He was among the pioneers in research and development in membrane technology, in particular membrane distillation and osmotic distillation.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiAbout the Authors xvNomenclature xvii1 General Introduction 11.1 Overview of Distillation Processes 11.2 Membrane Distillation (MD) 51.2.1 Historical Perspective 51.2.2 MD Process 71.3 Osmotic Distillation (OD) 111.3.1 Historical Perspective 111.3.2 OD Process 121.4 MD and OD as Alternatives to Established Stripping Processes 141.4.1 Nonvolatile Solutes Retention 151.4.2 Minimization of Heat Damage to Feed Components 151.4.3 Organic Volatiles Retention 181.4.4 Production of Highly Concentrated Solutions 191.4.5 Utilization of Waste Heat or Heat from Natural Sources 201.5 Established Stripping Processes 201.5.1 Multistage Flash Distillation (MSF) 201.5.2 Multiple-Effect Distillation (MED) 221.5.3 Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD) 251.5.4 Freeze Concentration (FC) 261.5.5 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 281.5.6 Electrodialysis (ED) 311.6 Other Membrane Processes 321.6.1 Microfiltration (MF) 331.6.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 341.6.3 Nanofiltration (NF) 361.7 Concluding Remarks 382 Theoretical Aspects of Membrane Distillation 392.1 Introduction 392.2 MD Theory 402.2.1 Preliminary Considerations 402.2.2 Overall Approach to Theoretical Treatment 452.2.3 Overall Driving Force, Δpb 462.2.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 502.2.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, ;;v 602.3 MD Membrane Requirements 682.4 Effect of Operating Conditions on MD Performance 712.4.1 Feed Temperature 712.4.2 Strip Temperature 722.4.3 Feed Solutes Concentration 722.4.4 Feed Velocity 732.4.5 Strip Velocity 752.4.6 Membrane Type 762.4.7 Summary of Conditions Affecting MD Performance 772.5 MD Process Economics 792.6 Concluding Remarks 823 Theoretical Aspects of Osmotic Distillation 853.1 Introduction 853.2 OD Theory 873.2.1 Preliminary Considerations 873.2.2 Overall Approach to Theoretical Treatment 903.2.3 Overall Driving Force, Δpb 923.2.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 963.2.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, ;;v 973.3 OD Membrane Requirements 973.4 Effect of Operating Conditions on OD Performance 983.4.1 Osmotic Agent Concentration 993.4.2 Feed Solutes Concentration 993.4.3 Feed Velocity 1003.4.4 Strip Velocity 1003.4.5 Feed and Strip Temperature 1013.4.6 Membrane Type 1013.4.7 Summary of Conditions Affecting OD Performance 1033.5 OD Process Economics 1033.6 Concluding Remarks 1054 Properties of Macroporous Hydrophobic Membranes 1074.1 Introduction 1074.2 Theoretical Aspects of Membrane Hydrophobicity 1084.3 Membrane Types 1114.3.1 Polypropylene (PP) 1134.3.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 1154.3.3 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) 1184.3.4 Tailored PVDF-Based Membranes 1184.3.5 Polyazole Membranes 1194.3.6 Nanofibrous PVDF–PTFE Membranes 1214.3.7 Surface-Modified Hydrophilic Membranes 1224.3.8 Inorganic Membranes 1224.4 Fouling of Hydrophobic Membranes 1234.4.1 Inorganic Fouling or Scaling 1264.4.2 Organic Fouling 1274.4.3 Biological Fouling 1294.4.4 Clean-in-Place (CIP) Operating Conditions 1294.5 Protection Against Membrane Wet-Out 1304.6 Hydrophobicity Restoration 1324.7 Membrane Module Requirements 1324.7.1 Plate-and-Frame Modules 1334.7.2 Spiral Wound Modules 1344.7.3 Hollow-Fiber Modules 1354.8 Concluding Remarks 1375 Membrane Distillation Applications 1395.1 Introduction 1395.1.1 Water Recovery 1405.1.2 Electrical Energy Consumption 1415.1.3 Thermal Energy Consumption 1415.2 Desalination 1425.2.1 Water Pretreatment 1435.2.2 Brine Disposal 1455.2.3 Applications 1455.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 1475.3.1 Radioactive Waste Treatment 1505.3.2 Concentration of Nonvolatile Acids 1535.3.3 Volatile Acid Recovery from Industrial Effluents 1535.3.4 Salt Recovery by Membrane Distillation Crystallization (MDC) 1545.3.5 Textile Industry Applications 1555.4 Production of Liquid Food Concentrates 1565.5 Miscellaneous Applications 1615.5.1 Volatiles Recovery from Fruit Juice by VMD and SGMD 1615.5.2 Dealcoholization of Fermented Beverages Using DCMD 1625.5.3 Enhanced Ethanol Production Using DCMD 1635.5.4 Production of Pharmaceutical Products 1645.6 Concluding Remarks 1656 Osmotic Distillation Applications 1676.1 Introduction 1676.2 Fruit and Vegetable Juice Applications 1766.2.1 Orange Juice 1766.2.2 Apple Juice 1836.2.3 Kiwifruit Juice 1876.2.4 Grape Juice 1906.2.5 Melon Juice 1936.2.6 Camu Camu Juice 1966.2.7 Pomegranate Juice 1986.2.8 Tomato Juice 2006.2.9 Passion Fruit Juice 2036.2.10 Pineapple Juice 2066.2.11 Cornelian Cherry, Blackthorn, and Common Whitebeam Juice 2076.2.12 Sour Cherry Juice 2076.2.13 Cranberry Juice 2086.3 Other Applications 2096.3.1 Recovery and Concentration of Polyphenols from Olive Mill Wastewater 2096.3.2 Recovery of Flavonoids from Orange Press Liquor 2126.3.3 Echinacea Extract Concentration 2136.3.4 Reconcentration of Spent Osmotic Dehydration Sucrose Solutions 2156.3.5 Aroma Recovery from Artificial Solutions 2166.4 Concluding Remarks 2187 Future Prospects for Membrane Distillation and Osmotic Distillation 2217.1 Introduction 2217.2 Membrane Module Design 2227.3 Membrane Protection Against Wet-Out 2247.3.1 Reclamation of Water for Reuse During Long-Duration Human Space Missions 2257.3.2 Production of Citrus Fruit Juice Concentrates 2267.3.3 Whole Milk Concentration on the Farm 2277.3.4 Concentration of Detergent-Containing Radioactive Waste Solutions 2287.4 Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources 2287.5 Membrane-Based Factory Processes of the Future: A Hypothetical Example 2317.6 End Note 235References 237Index 261

ROBERT A. JOHNSON, BSC, MSC, PHD (UQ) is a lecturer in Physical Chemistry and Chemical Technology at Queensland University of Technology. Prior to entering academia he was a Research Director at Syrinx Research Institute where he oversaw the development of Osmotic Distillation from a laboratory novelty to the pilot plant stage. MINH H. NGUYEN, BE, GRAD DIP, MSC (UNSW), PHD (UTS) is a Conjoint Associate Professor at the University of Newcastle and an Adjunct Associate Professor at Western Sydney University. He has a lifetime of experience in scientific research and development in industry, research laboratories and university. He was among the pioneers in research and development in membrane technology, in particular membrane distillation and osmotic distillation.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiAbout the Authors xvNomenclature xvii1 General Introduction 11.1 Overview of Distillation Processes 11.2 Membrane Distillation (MD) 51.2.1 Historical Perspective 51.2.2 MD Process 71.3 Osmotic Distillation (OD) 111.3.1 Historical Perspective 111.3.2 OD Process 121.4 MD and OD as Alternatives to Established Stripping Processes 141.4.1 Nonvolatile Solutes Retention 151.4.2 Minimization of Heat Damage to Feed Components 151.4.3 Organic Volatiles Retention 181.4.4 Production of Highly Concentrated Solutions 191.4.5 Utilization of Waste Heat or Heat from Natural Sources 201.5 Established Stripping Processes 201.5.1 Multistage Flash Distillation (MSF) 201.5.2 Multiple-Effect Distillation (MED) 221.5.3 Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD) 251.5.4 Freeze Concentration (FC) 261.5.5 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 281.5.6 Electrodialysis (ED) 311.6 Other Membrane Processes 321.6.1 Microfiltration (MF) 331.6.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 341.6.3 Nanofiltration (NF) 361.7 Concluding Remarks 382 Theoretical Aspects of Membrane Distillation 392.1 Introduction 392.2 MD Theory 402.2.1 Preliminary Considerations 402.2.2 Overall Approach to Theoretical Treatment 452.2.3 Overall Driving Force, Δpb 462.2.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 502.2.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, ;;v 602.3 MD Membrane Requirements 682.4 Effect of Operating Conditions on MD Performance 712.4.1 Feed Temperature 712.4.2 Strip Temperature 722.4.3 Feed Solutes Concentration 722.4.4 Feed Velocity 732.4.5 Strip Velocity 752.4.6 Membrane Type 762.4.7 Summary of Conditions Affecting MD Performance 772.5 MD Process Economics 792.6 Concluding Remarks 823 Theoretical Aspects of Osmotic Distillation 853.1 Introduction 853.2 OD Theory 873.2.1 Preliminary Considerations 873.2.2 Overall Approach to Theoretical Treatment 903.2.3 Overall Driving Force, Δpb 923.2.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 963.2.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, ;;v 973.3 OD Membrane Requirements 973.4 Effect of Operating Conditions on OD Performance 983.4.1 Osmotic Agent Concentration 993.4.2 Feed Solutes Concentration 993.4.3 Feed Velocity 1003.4.4 Strip Velocity 1003.4.5 Feed and Strip Temperature 1013.4.6 Membrane Type 1013.4.7 Summary of Conditions Affecting OD Performance 1033.5 OD Process Economics 1033.6 Concluding Remarks 1054 Properties of Macroporous Hydrophobic Membranes 1074.1 Introduction 1074.2 Theoretical Aspects of Membrane Hydrophobicity 1084.3 Membrane Types 1114.3.1 Polypropylene (PP) 1134.3.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 1154.3.3 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) 1184.3.4 Tailored PVDF-Based Membranes 1184.3.5 Polyazole Membranes 1194.3.6 Nanofibrous PVDF–PTFE Membranes 1214.3.7 Surface-Modified Hydrophilic Membranes 1224.3.8 Inorganic Membranes 1224.4 Fouling of Hydrophobic Membranes 1234.4.1 Inorganic Fouling or Scaling 1264.4.2 Organic Fouling 1274.4.3 Biological Fouling 1294.4.4 Clean-in-Place (CIP) Operating Conditions 1294.5 Protection Against Membrane Wet-Out 1304.6 Hydrophobicity Restoration 1324.7 Membrane Module Requirements 1324.7.1 Plate-and-Frame Modules 1334.7.2 Spiral Wound Modules 1344.7.3 Hollow-Fiber Modules 1354.8 Concluding Remarks 1375 Membrane Distillation Applications 1395.1 Introduction 1395.1.1 Water Recovery 1405.1.2 Electrical Energy Consumption 1415.1.3 Thermal Energy Consumption 1415.2 Desalination 1425.2.1 Water Pretreatment 1435.2.2 Brine Disposal 1455.2.3 Applications 1455.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 1475.3.1 Radioactive Waste Treatment 1505.3.2 Concentration of Nonvolatile Acids 1535.3.3 Volatile Acid Recovery from Industrial Effluents 1535.3.4 Salt Recovery by Membrane Distillation Crystallization (MDC) 1545.3.5 Textile Industry Applications 1555.4 Production of Liquid Food Concentrates 1565.5 Miscellaneous Applications 1615.5.1 Volatiles Recovery from Fruit Juice by VMD and SGMD 1615.5.2 Dealcoholization of Fermented Beverages Using DCMD 1625.5.3 Enhanced Ethanol Production Using DCMD 1635.5.4 Production of Pharmaceutical Products 1645.6 Concluding Remarks 1656 Osmotic Distillation Applications 1676.1 Introduction 1676.2 Fruit and Vegetable Juice Applications 1766.2.1 Orange Juice 1766.2.2 Apple Juice 1836.2.3 Kiwifruit Juice 1876.2.4 Grape Juice 1906.2.5 Melon Juice 1936.2.6 Camu Camu Juice 1966.2.7 Pomegranate Juice 1986.2.8 Tomato Juice 2006.2.9 Passion Fruit Juice 2036.2.10 Pineapple Juice 2066.2.11 Cornelian Cherry, Blackthorn, and Common Whitebeam Juice 2076.2.12 Sour Cherry Juice 2076.2.13 Cranberry Juice 2086.3 Other Applications 2096.3.1 Recovery and Concentration of Polyphenols from Olive Mill Wastewater 2096.3.2 Recovery of Flavonoids from Orange Press Liquor 2126.3.3 Echinacea Extract Concentration 2136.3.4 Reconcentration of Spent Osmotic Dehydration Sucrose Solutions 2156.3.5 Aroma Recovery from Artificial Solutions 2166.4 Concluding Remarks 2187 Future Prospects for Membrane Distillation and Osmotic Distillation 2217.1 Introduction 2217.2 Membrane Module Design 2227.3 Membrane Protection Against Wet-Out 2247.3.1 Reclamation of Water for Reuse During Long-Duration Human Space Missions 2257.3.2 Production of Citrus Fruit Juice Concentrates 2267.3.3 Whole Milk Concentration on the Farm 2277.3.4 Concentration of Detergent-Containing Radioactive Waste Solutions 2287.4 Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources 2287.5 Membrane-Based Factory Processes of the Future: A Hypothetical Example 2317.6 End Note 235References 237Index 261

ROBERT A. JOHNSON, BSC, MSC, PHD (UQ) is a lecturer in Physical Chemistry and Chemical Technology at Queensland University of Technology. Prior to entering academia he was a Research Director at Syrinx Research Institute where he oversaw the development of Osmotic Distillation from a laboratory novelty to the pilot plant stage. MINH H. NGUYEN, BE, GRAD DIP, MSC (UNSW), PHD (UTS) is a Conjoint Associate Professor at the University of Newcastle and an Adjunct Associate Professor at Western Sydney University. He has a lifetime of experience in scientific research and development in industry, research laboratories and university. He was among the pioneers in research and development in membrane technology, in particular membrane distillation and osmotic distillation.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiAbout the Authors xvNomenclature xvii1 General Introduction 11.1 Overview of Distillation Processes 11.2 Membrane Distillation (MD) 51.2.1 Historical Perspective 51.2.2 MD Process 71.3 Osmotic Distillation (OD) 111.3.1 Historical Perspective 111.3.2 OD Process 121.4 MD and OD as Alternatives to Established Stripping Processes 141.4.1 Nonvolatile Solutes Retention 151.4.2 Minimization of Heat Damage to Feed Components 151.4.3 Organic Volatiles Retention 181.4.4 Production of Highly Concentrated Solutions 191.4.5 Utilization of Waste Heat or Heat from Natural Sources 201.5 Established Stripping Processes 201.5.1 Multistage Flash Distillation (MSF) 201.5.2 Multiple-Effect Distillation (MED) 221.5.3 Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD) 251.5.4 Freeze Concentration (FC) 261.5.5 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 281.5.6 Electrodialysis (ED) 311.6 Other Membrane Processes 321.6.1 Microfiltration (MF) 331.6.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 341.6.3 Nanofiltration (NF) 361.7 Concluding Remarks 382 Theoretical Aspects of Membrane Distillation 392.1 Introduction 392.2 MD Theory 402.2.1 Preliminary Considerations 402.2.2 Overall Approach to Theoretical Treatment 452.2.3 Overall Driving Force, Δpb 462.2.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 502.2.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, ;;v 602.3 MD Membrane Requirements 682.4 Effect of Operating Conditions on MD Performance 712.4.1 Feed Temperature 712.4.2 Strip Temperature 722.4.3 Feed Solutes Concentration 722.4.4 Feed Velocity 732.4.5 Strip Velocity 752.4.6 Membrane Type 762.4.7 Summary of Conditions Affecting MD Performance 772.5 MD Process Economics 792.6 Concluding Remarks 823 Theoretical Aspects of Osmotic Distillation 853.1 Introduction 853.2 OD Theory 873.2.1 Preliminary Considerations 873.2.2 Overall Approach to Theoretical Treatment 903.2.3 Overall Driving Force, Δpb 923.2.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 963.2.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, ;;v 973.3 OD Membrane Requirements 973.4 Effect of Operating Conditions on OD Performance 983.4.1 Osmotic Agent Concentration 993.4.2 Feed Solutes Concentration 993.4.3 Feed Velocity 1003.4.4 Strip Velocity 1003.4.5 Feed and Strip Temperature 1013.4.6 Membrane Type 1013.4.7 Summary of Conditions Affecting OD Performance 1033.5 OD Process Economics 1033.6 Concluding Remarks 1054 Properties of Macroporous Hydrophobic Membranes 1074.1 Introduction 1074.2 Theoretical Aspects of Membrane Hydrophobicity 1084.3 Membrane Types 1114.3.1 Polypropylene (PP) 1134.3.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 1154.3.3 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) 1184.3.4 Tailored PVDF-Based Membranes 1184.3.5 Polyazole Membranes 1194.3.6 Nanofibrous PVDF–PTFE Membranes 1214.3.7 Surface-Modified Hydrophilic Membranes 1224.3.8 Inorganic Membranes 1224.4 Fouling of Hydrophobic Membranes 1234.4.1 Inorganic Fouling or Scaling 1264.4.2 Organic Fouling 1274.4.3 Biological Fouling 1294.4.4 Clean-in-Place (CIP) Operating Conditions 1294.5 Protection Against Membrane Wet-Out 1304.6 Hydrophobicity Restoration 1324.7 Membrane Module Requirements 1324.7.1 Plate-and-Frame Modules 1334.7.2 Spiral Wound Modules 1344.7.3 Hollow-Fiber Modules 1354.8 Concluding Remarks 1375 Membrane Distillation Applications 1395.1 Introduction 1395.1.1 Water Recovery 1405.1.2 Electrical Energy Consumption 1415.1.3 Thermal Energy Consumption 1415.2 Desalination 1425.2.1 Water Pretreatment 1435.2.2 Brine Disposal 1455.2.3 Applications 1455.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 1475.3.1 Radioactive Waste Treatment 1505.3.2 Concentration of Nonvolatile Acids 1535.3.3 Volatile Acid Recovery from Industrial Effluents 1535.3.4 Salt Recovery by Membrane Distillation Crystallization (MDC) 1545.3.5 Textile Industry Applications 1555.4 Production of Liquid Food Concentrates 1565.5 Miscellaneous Applications 1615.5.1 Volatiles Recovery from Fruit Juice by VMD and SGMD 1615.5.2 Dealcoholization of Fermented Beverages Using DCMD 1625.5.3 Enhanced Ethanol Production Using DCMD 1635.5.4 Production of Pharmaceutical Products 1645.6 Concluding Remarks 1656 Osmotic Distillation Applications 1676.1 Introduction 1676.2 Fruit and Vegetable Juice Applications 1766.2.1 Orange Juice 1766.2.2 Apple Juice 1836.2.3 Kiwifruit Juice 1876.2.4 Grape Juice 1906.2.5 Melon Juice 1936.2.6 Camu Camu Juice 1966.2.7 Pomegranate Juice 1986.2.8 Tomato Juice 2006.2.9 Passion Fruit Juice 2036.2.10 Pineapple Juice 2066.2.11 Cornelian Cherry, Blackthorn, and Common Whitebeam Juice 2076.2.12 Sour Cherry Juice 2076.2.13 Cranberry Juice 2086.3 Other Applications 2096.3.1 Recovery and Concentration of Polyphenols from Olive Mill Wastewater 2096.3.2 Recovery of Flavonoids from Orange Press Liquor 2126.3.3 Echinacea Extract Concentration 2136.3.4 Reconcentration of Spent Osmotic Dehydration Sucrose Solutions 2156.3.5 Aroma Recovery from Artificial Solutions 2166.4 Concluding Remarks 2187 Future Prospects for Membrane Distillation and Osmotic Distillation 2217.1 Introduction 2217.2 Membrane Module Design 2227.3 Membrane Protection Against Wet-Out 2247.3.1 Reclamation of Water for Reuse During Long-Duration Human Space Missions 2257.3.2 Production of Citrus Fruit Juice Concentrates 2267.3.3 Whole Milk Concentration on the Farm 2277.3.4 Concentration of Detergent-Containing Radioactive Waste Solutions 2287.4 Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources 2287.5 Membrane-Based Factory Processes of the Future: A Hypothetical Example 2317.6 End Note 235References 237Index 261