Understanding Explosions

Daniel A. Crowl is the author of Understanding Explosions, published by Wiley.

• PREFACE ixACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi1 INTRODUCTION 11.1. Accident Loss History 31.2. The Accident Process (AIChE, 2000) 41.3. A Case History—Flixborough, England 41.4. Hazard Identification and Evaluation 61.5. Inherently Safer Design 72 FUNDAMENTALS OF FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS 92.1. Gases and Vapors 132.1.1. Flammability Diagram 182.1.2. Estimating Flammability Limits 282.1.3. Temperature Effect on Flammability 302.1.4. Pressure Effect on Flammability 312.1.5. Flammability of Gaseous Mixtures 312.1.6. Minimum Ignition Energies 322.1.7. Autoignition Temperature 342.1.8. Example Applications 342.2. Liquids 372.2.1. Flashpoints of Mixtures of Liquids 402.2.2. Example Applications 422.3. Aerosols and Mists 432.4. Dusts 432.5. Hybrid Mixtures 482.6. Kinetics and Thermochemistry 482.6.1. Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperatures (CAFT) 502.6.2. Example Application 522.7. Gas Dynamics 542.7.1. Detonations and Deflagrations 582.7.2. Estimating Peak Side-on Overpressures 612.7.3. Example Applications 622.7.4. Pressure Piling and Deflagration to Detonation Transition 632.8. Physical Explosions 642.8.1. BLEVEs 652.8.2. Rapid Phase Transition Explosions 672.9. Vapor Cloud Explosions 682.9.1. TNT Equivalency 702.9.2. TNO Multi-Energy Method 712.9.3. Baker-Strehlow-TangMethod(AIChE, 1999a) 772.9.4. Computational Fluid Mechanics (CFD) Method 822.9.5. Example Applications 832.10. Runaway Reactions 852.10.1. Steady-State and Dynamic Reactor Behavior 882.10.2. Experimental Characterization 922.11. Condensed Phase Explosions 942.12. Fireballs, Pool, Flash, and Jet Fires 962.13. Explosion Effects 982.13.1. Thermal Exposure 982.13.2. Overpressure Exposure 992.14. Ignition Sources 1032.14.1. Static Electricity 1053 PREVENTION AND MITIGATION OF EXPLOSIONS 1133.1. Additional References 1133.2. Inherently Safer Design 1133.3. Using the Flammability Diagram to Avoid Flammable Atmospheres 1173.4. Inerting and Purging 1203.4.1. Vacuum Purging 1213.4.2. Pressure Purging 1233.4.3. Combined Pressure-Vacuum Purging 1243.4.4. Sweep Purging 1263.4.5. Siphon Purging 1273.4.6. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Inerting Procedures 1273.4.7. Inert Gas Blanketing of Storage Vessels 1283.4.8. Inert Purging and Blanketing during Drumming Operations 1283.5. Example Application 1303.6. Explosion Venting 1323.7. Grounding and Bonding 1323.8. Ventilation 1383.9. Sprinkler and Deluge Systems 1393.10. Charging and Drumming Flammable Liquids 1423.11. Example Application 1423.12. Charging Powders 1453.13. Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Areas 1483.13.1. Protection Techniques 156Appendix A DETAILED EQUATIONS FOR FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAMS 161Part A: Equations Useful for Gas Mixtures 161Part B: Equations Useful for Placing Vessels Into and Out of Service 165Appendix B EQUATIONS FOR DETERMINING THE ENERGY OF EXPLOSION 169B.l. Example Application 171Appendix C FLAMMABILITY DATA FOR SELECTED MATERIALS 173Appendix D PROCEDURE FOR EXAMPLE 3.2 177Appendix E COMBUSTION DATA FOR DUST CLOUDS 191REFERENCES 193GLOSSARY 203INDEX 209