Reza Barati, University of Kansas, USA Mustafa M. Alhubail, University of Kansas, USA

• Contributors xiiiPreface xv1 Introduction to Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources 1Mustafa M. Alhubail and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi1.1 Background 11.2 Overview of Shale Revolution 21.2.1 What Led to the Shale Phenomenon? 31.2.2 Importance of Recent Unconventional Resource Discoveries 41.3 Basic Definitions and Classifications 51.3.1 Conventional and Unconventional Resources 51.3.2 Unconventional Oil-Bearing Sediments 61.3.3 Unconventional Natural Gas Resources 61.4 Global Description of Unconventional Plays 81.4.1 North America Unconventional Plays 91.4.2 South America Unconventional Plays 201.4.3 Europe Unconventional Plays 241.4.4 Middle East Unconventional Plays 301.4.5 Africa Unconventional Plays 311.4.6 Asia Unconventional Plays 331.4.7 Australia Unconventional Plays 361.5 Unconventional Resources Interpretation Workflow 371.5.1 Workflow of Unconventional Reservoirs 371.6 Future Projection and Challenges 381.7 General Remarks 391.8 Problems 39Additional Reading 40References 402 Petrophysical Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 45Negar Nazari, Mustafa M. Alhubail, Sherifa E. Cudjoe, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi2.1 Background 452.2 Petrophysics 452.2.1 Evaluation of Rock Properties 462.2.2 Shale Volume 462.2.3 Gamma Ray Spectroscopy 482.3 Lithology Evaluation 512.3.1 Lithology Measurements Using Cross-Plots 522.3.2 Lithology Measurements Using a Combination of Logs 532.3.3 Lithology Measurements Using the Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy Techniques 572.4 Porosity 582.4.1 Porosity Measurement 602.4.2 NMR Core Porosity for Shales 712.5 Pore-Size Distribution 752.5.1 Pore-Size Distribution Using NMR Logging 752.5.2 Pore-Size Distribution Using Nitrogen Adsorption 782.6 Permeability 802.6.1 Unsteady-State Permeability Measurement Methods 812.6.2 Single Phase Permeability Measurements 892.6.3 NMR Permeability 912.6.4 Relative Permeability 952.6.5 NMR Capillary Pressure 992.6.6 Relative Permeability from NMR Pseudocapillary Pressure 992.7 Saturation 1002.7.1 Techniques for Calculating Water Saturation 1002.7.2 Resistivity Logs 1002.7.3 NMR Saturation Estimation 1042.8 Wettability 1052.8.1 Wettability Measurement 1052.9 Hydrocarbon Pore Volume and Reserve Estimation 1102.9.1 Volumetric Analysis Theory 1102.10 Problems 115Additional Reading 117References 1173 Petroleum Geochemistry in Organic-Rich Shale Reservoirs 131Sherifa E. Cudjoe, Mustafa M. Alhubail, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi3.1 Background 1313.2 Evolution of Organic Matter 1313.2.1 Diagenesis 1323.2.2 Catagenesis 1323.2.3 Metagenesis 1333.3 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 1333.4 Kerogen, Bitumen, and/or Pyrobitumen 1343.4.1 Classification of Kerogen 1363.5 Vitrinite Reflectance 1383.6 Solid Bitumen Reflectance 1393.7 Organic Porosity 1403.8 Methods of Determining Source Rock Potential 1423.8.1 Direct Combustion 1433.8.2 Indirect Method 1433.8.3 Rock-Eval Pyrolysis Method 1433.8.4 In-Situ Measurements 1513.9 Original TOC and Hydrocarbon Yield Determinations 1603.9.1 Organic Porosity from Rock-Eval Parameters 1633.10 Thermal Maturity and Source Rock Assessment 1653.10.1 Biological Markers (Biomarkers) 1653.10.2 Diamondoids 1683.11 Raman Spectroscopy Analysis of Thermal Maturity in Kerogen 1703.11.1 Thermal Maturity Controls of Organic Matter Types in LEF Samples 1713.11.2 Maturity-Related Changes 1763.12 Drifts Analysis of Kerogen Maturity 1763.13 Problems 179Additional Reading 182References 1824 Application of Imaging Techniques in the Characterization of Organic-Rich Shales 189Sherifa E. Cudjoe and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi4.1 Background 1894.2 X-ray Microcomputed Tomography (X-ray Micro-CT) 1904.2.1 Operation of X-Ray Micro-CT 1924.2.2 Sample Preparation 1944.2.3 X-ray Micro-CT Scanning Procedure 1964.2.4 Image Reconstruction 1984.2.5 Application of X-ray Micro-CT on Shale Samples 2004.2.6 Image Visualization and Processing 2034.2.7 Estimating Porosity from CT number (CTN) of CT Images 2094.2.8 Permeability Estimation from CT scanner 2124.2.9 Two-Phase Fluid Saturations 2124.3 X-Ray Nano-CT 2134.3.1 Sample Preparation for X-Ray Nano-CT 2144.3.2 In-Situ Wettability and Spontaneous Imbibition at Nanoscale 2144.4 Electron Microscopy 2174.4.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 2174.4.2 SEM/BSE Images of Various Ultratight, Organic-Rich Formations 2204.4.3 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry (EDS/EDX) 2284.4.4 Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by Scanning Electron Microscopy (QEMSCAN) 2354.4.5 Focused Ion Beam-Scanning Electron Microscopy (FIB-SEM) 2414.4.6 Three-Dimensional (3D) Rock Model 2434.4.7 Pore Network Model (PNM) and Pore Size Distribution (PSD) 2454.4.8 Permeability Estimation 2494.5 Broad Ion Beam-Scanning Electron Microscopy (BIB-SEM) 2494.5.1 Sample Preparation, BIB-SEM Acquisition and Processing 2504.6 Acknowledgment 2514.7 Problems on Micro-CT and Nano-CT 2524.8 Problems on Electron Microscopy 252Additional Reading 257References 2575 Geomechanical Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 265Mustafa M. Alhubail, Anil Misra, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi5.1 Background 2655.2 Basic Concepts and Definitions 2655.2.1 Stress 2655.2.2 Strain 2665.2.3 Elastic Constants 2665.2.4 Poisson’s Ratio 2675.3 Stresses and Pressure Gradients 2695.3.1 Vertical Stress and Overburden Pressure 2695.3.2 Effective Vertical Stress 2705.3.3 Effective Horizontal Stress 2715.3.4 Biot’s Poroelastic Constant 2715.3.5 Horizontal Stresses and Fracturing Pressure 2725.4 Well-Logging Measurements to Determine the Elastic Parameters 2775.4.1 Calculating the Dynamic Moduli 2775.4.2 Correlations for Static Moduli 2815.5 Identifying the Geomechanical Sweet Spots 2825.5.1 Brittleness Index 2835.6 General Remarks 2905.7 Problems 291Additional Reading 294References 2946 Hydraulic Fracturing 299Mustafa M. Alhubail and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi6.1 Background 2996.2 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Fracturing 3006.2.1 Fracture Geometry 3016.2.2 Fracture Conductivity 3016.2.3 Folds of Increase 3056.2.4 Multistage Hydraulic Fracturing 3076.2.5 Stress Shadow 3106.2.6 Zipper Fracturing 3116.2.7 Fracture Hits 3126.2.8 Surface Pumps 3156.2.9 Minifrac and DFIT Tests 3166.2.10 Microseismic Monitoring 3206.2.11 Stimulated Reservoir Volume 3216.3 Fracturing Fluids 3236.3.1 Purpose 3236.3.2 Fracturing Fluid Types, Properties and Selection Process 3246.3.3 Rheology of Fracturing Fluids 3266.3.4 Damage of Fracturing Fluid and Fracture Cleanup 3296.3.5 Fracturing Fluids Additives 3296.4 Proppant 3336.4.1 Purpose 3346.4.2 Proppant Characteristics and Selection Process 3346.4.3 Proppant Types 3376.4.4 Proppant Flowback 3396.4.5 Proppant Transport 3406.4.6 Proppant Schedule 3416.5 Modeling of Hydraulic Fractures 3416.5.1 Importance of Modeling 3426.5.2 Governing Processes of the Models 3426.5.3 Modeling History 3426.6 Problems 351Additional Reading 352References 3527 Phase Behavior of Shale Oil and Gas 359Xiaoli Li, Jyun-Syung Tsau, Qinwen Fu, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi7.1 Background 3597.2 Compositional Analyses of Shale Fluids 3597.2.1 Subsurface Sampling 3607.2.2 Surface Sampling 3637.3 Phase Behavior and PVT Experiments 3687.3.1 Phase Diagrams 3687.3.2 PVT Experiments and Data Quality Check 3727.4 Equation of State (EOS) 3797.4.1 Cubic Equation of State 3797.4.2 Stability Analysis 3817.4.3 Confinement/Pore Proximity Effect on Phase Behavior 3827.4.4 Phase Diagrams of Bakken, Eagle Ford, and Wolfcamp Fluids 3907.4.5 Diffusion Coefficient 3937.5 EOS Regression to Experimental Data 3937.6 Minimum Miscibility Pressure 3957.6.1 Experimental Methods 3967.6.2 Analytical Methods 4027.6.3 Numerical Methods 4037.6.4 Correlation Methods 4037.7 Problems 403Additional Reading 408References 4088 Fluid Flow Through Nanosized Pores 413Mohammad Kazemi, Ali Takbiri-Borujeni, Sherifa E. Cudjoe, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi8.1 Background 4138.2 Pore Size Distribution 4148.3 Adsorption 4148.4 Flow Regimes 4188.5 Modeling Techniques 4218.5.1 Fluid Transport in Confined Enclosures 4218.5.2 Apparent Permeability of Shale 4218.5.3 Transport in Organic Nanopores 4238.5.4 Molecular Simulations 4248.5.5 Molecular Structure of Kerogen 4248.5.6 Multiscale Modeling Techniques 4278.6 Lattice Boltzmann Model (LBM) 4288.6.1 LBM Simulation 4318.6.2 Implementation of LBM Simulation in Organic Nanopores 4328.6.3 Apparent Permeability 4338.7 Problems 434Additional Reading 434References 434Appendix 4399 Decline Curve and Rate Transient Analysis 445Mustafa M. Alhubail, Mojdeh Rasoulzadeh, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi9.1 Background 4459.2 Purpose of Decline Curves 4459.3 Decline Curve Assumptions and Limitations 4469.4 Traditional Decline Curve Models 4479.5 Arps’s Models 4479.5.1 Exponential Decline Model 4489.5.2 Determination of Exponential Decline Graphically 4489.5.3 Harmonic Decline Model 4519.5.4 Determination of Harmonic Decline Graphically 4519.5.5 Hyperbolic Decline Model 4529.5.6 Determination of Hyperbolic Decline Parameters 4549.6 Modern Decline Curve Models 4569.6.1 Modified Hyperbolic Model 4579.6.2 Power-Law Exponential Model 4599.6.3 Stretched Exponential Model 4609.6.4 Logistic Growth Model 4629.6.5 Duong Model 4629.7 Rate Transient Analysis 4649.7.1 Purpose and Features of RTA 4649.7.2 RTA Concept 4659.7.3 Type Curves 4669.7.4 Type Curve Methods 4679.7.5 Square Root Time and Flowing Material Balance Plots 4719.7.6 Flow Regimes 4729.8 Problems 478Additional Reading 494References 49410 Petroleum Economics of Unconventional Shale Reservoirs 499Mustafa M. Alhubail, Hajar Aghababa, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi10.1 Background 49910.2 Effect of Shale Oil/Gas Developments on Economics and Energy Security 49910.3 Fundamentals of Petroleum Economics 50310.3.1 Business Expenditures 50310.3.2 Basic Cash Flow 50410.3.3 Interest Rate 50810.3.4 Future Value 50910.3.5 Present Value 50910.3.6 Net Present Value (NPV) 51010.3.7 Rate of Return (ROR) 51110.3.8 Payout 51210.4 Fiscal Regimes and Contracts 51310.4.1 The Concessionary System (Royalty/Tax System) 51310.4.2 The Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs) 51310.4.3 Service Contracts 51510.5 Decision, Uncertainty, and Risk Analysis 51610.6 Chapter Project 51710.6.1 Project Data 51810.6.2 Project Calculations 51810.7 Problems 525Additional Reading 526References 52611 Environmental Aspects of Shale Hydrocarbon Reservoir Developments 527Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi, Stephen Randtke, and Edward Peltier11.1 Background 52711.2 Water Management and Reuse 52711.2.1 Basic Terminology Related to Water Management and Reuse 52711.2.2 Water Cycle in Oil and Gas Production 52911.2.3 Water Acquisition for Hydraulic Fracturing 53111.2.4 Flowback and Produced Water Quantity and Quality 53311.2.5 Flowback and Produced Water Reuse 53511.3 Chemicals used in Fracturing Fluids 53911.4 Potential Impacts on Drinking Water Resources 54611.5 Induced Seismicity 54911.6 Air Pollution 55111.7 Problems 552Additional Reading 552References 552Index 555

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