Steven E. Churchill is Professor of Evolutionary Anthropology at Duke University. A recognized leader in the field of physical anthropology, Dr. Churchill is the author of more than 50 research articles on the morphology and behavior of Neandertals and early modern humans.

• Series Introduction ixPreface xiAcknowledgements xvChapter 1 Thin on the Ground: Population Density and Technological Innovation 1Note 7Chapter 2 The Neandertals in Time and Space 92.1 Geographic and Temporal Boundaries 102.2 Defining the Neandertals 132.3 Neandertal DNA 272.4 Neandertal Taxonomy 302.5 Regional and Temporal Variation in Neandertal Morphology 302.6 The Evolutionary History of the Neandertals 32Notes 39Chapter 3 Neandertal Material Culture 413.1 Neandertal-associated Lithic Industries 423.2 Variation in the Eurasian Middle Paleolithic: Technology as Adaptive Interface 533.3 Composite Technology, and the Archeologically Less-visible Component of Technology 593.4 Subsistence Technology 613.5 Domestic Technology 67Notes 69Chapter 4 The Body Neandertal 714.1 Neandertal Body Size: Short but Massive 724.2 Body Composition: “Scaled Up” Inuit? 794.3 The Cost of Size: Feeding a Large Body and Large Brain 824.3.1 Nutrition and Somatic Maintenance: Neandertal Bodies were Energetically Costly 834.3.2 Nutrition and Reproduction: Were Neandertal Mothers Like Polar Bears? 924.3.3 Dietary Shortfalls: Hard and Lean Winters 974.4 The Benefits of Size: Neandertal Body Size in Ecological Context 99Notes 104Chapter 5 Surviving the Cold 1075.1 How Cold Was It? 1085.1.1 Cold–Temperate Conditions (MIS 5d-a and 3) 1095.1.2 Cold Glacial Conditions (MIS 6 and 4) 1115.2 Human Adaptation to the Cold 1145.3 Cold Adaptation and Neandertal Morphology 1175.3.1 The Survival Value of Neandertal Body Form 1245.3.2 Craniofacial Morphology and Cold Adaptation 1295.4 Physiological Solutions to Cold Stress 1375.5 Cold Stress and Neandertal Behavior 1415.5.1 Activity 1415.5.2 Extrasomatic Heat Production and Conservation: Fire, Shelter and Clothing 1425.6 Thermogenic Capacity and Cold Tolerance 1465.7 The Neandertals Were Cold-adapted 148Notes 149Chapter 6 The Caloric Economy of Pleistocene Europe 1516.1 Issues in the Reconstruction of Past Environments 1526.2 Pleistocene Biomes of Europe and Western Asia 1576.2.1 Interglacial Europe: Marine Isotope Stages 7 and 5e 1596.2.2 Productivity and Edible Resources of Interglacial Environments 1626.2.3 Temperate Interglacial Europe: Marine Isotope Stages 5d–a and 3 1696.2.4 Cold Steppic Europe: Marine Isotope Stages 6 and 4 173Notes 175Chapter 7 Neandertals as Consumers 1797.1 Analysis of Food Residues: The Macromammal Component of Neandertal Diet 1817.2 Analysis of Food Residues: The Small Animal Data 1877.3 Analysis of Food Residues: Macrobotanical Remains 1917.4 Dental Wear and Food Residues on Teeth 1947.5 Stable Isotope and Trace Element Analyses 2007.6 The Thorny Issue of Cannibalism 2147.7 The Trophic Ecology of Neandertals 216Notes 218Chapter 8 Red in Tooth and Claw: Neandertals as Predators 2198.1 Neandertal Morphology and Predation 2208.1.1 Scapular Glenoid Fossa 2228.1.2 Elbow Joint Morphology 2248.1.3 Superior Pubic Ramus Length 2268.1.4 Humeral Diaphyseal Cross-sectional Geometry 2268.1.5 Entheseal (Muscle Marking) Morphology 2338.2 Neandertals as Close-range Predators 2368.3 Prey Size, Hunting “Pack” Size, and Risk of Injury to Neandertal Hunters 2458.4 Neandertal Hunting in Ecological Context 246Notes 249Chapter 9 In the Company of Killers: Neandertals as Carnivores 2519.1 Large-bodied Carnivores of the Eurasian Late Pleistocene 2539.2 The Members of the Eurasian Pleistocene Large-bodied Carnivore Guild 2569.2.1 Homotherium latidens 2569.2.2 Panthera leo spelaea 2589.2.3 Panthera pardus 2599.2.4 Crocuta crocuta spelaea 2609.2.5 Hyaena hyaena 2629.2.6 Canis lupus 2629.2.7 Cuon alpinus 2639.3 Competition within the Carnivore Guild 2649.3.1 Exploitation Competition 2659.3.2 Interference Competition 2689.4 Neandertals Were Not the Socially-Dominant Members of the Carnivore Guild 2719.5 Neandertal Ecology in the Context of Competition within the Carnivore Guild 276Notes 284Chapter 10 The Cost of Living in Ice Age Europe 28710.1 Subsistence Organization and Mobility 28910.2 Home Range Size 29910.2.1 Lithic Raw Material Movement 30010.2.2 Carnivore Models for Estimating Neandertal Mobility 30210.3 Paleontological Reflections of Neandertal Mobility 30910.4 The Energetic Cost of Mobility 31610.5 The Energetic Cost of Domestic Activities 32110.6 Neandertal Physical Activity Levels 324Notes 331Chapter 11 Neandertal Social Life, Life History, and Demography 33311.1 Subsistence Labor Demands, Group Size, and Social Structure 33611.2 Neandertal Life History 34211.3 Neandertal Demography 347Notes 352Chapter 12 From Thin to Thick: The African MSA 35312.1 Tipping the Scales on Population Growth 35512.2 Culture Change in the Late MSA and Mousterian 360Note 363References 365Index 445

“This book should serve both as a comprehensive introduction to the debate and as a timely stimulus to new research.”  (Antiquity, 1 August 2015)