Thermal Food Engineering Operations

Nitin Kumar, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Processing and Food Engineering at CCS Haryana Agricultural University. He obtained his doctorate in the discipline of processing and food engineering from Punjab Agricultural University, India, focusing on the preparation and characterization of novel bio-nano composite materials for food packaging. His area of expertise includes food packaging, biopolymers, shelf-life extension, and transformation and valorization of horticultural co-products. He is actively working on several research projects with the USA, UK, and Germany. Anil Panghal, PhD, is an assistant scientist in the Department of Processing and Food Engineering at CCS Haryana Agricultural University. Previously, he worked with Nestle as a production manager for nine years. His areas of expertise include bioprocessing, manufacturing, food chemistry, food science, and technology, FSMS, and nutrition. He obtained his PhD in food technology, focusing on the molecular and physicochemical quality aspects of commercial wheat varieties. He has published various research papers in reputed journals and chapters for international publishers. M.K. Garg, PhD, is very well-known and respected in the field of food process engineering. After completing his PhD in agricultural structures and process engineering from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, he started his career at Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar as an assistant professor in 1985. He is the former Dean of the College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Hisar. He has been involved in the design, development, and field evaluation of various post-harvest machinery and processing equipment. He is a member of the Bureau of Indian Standards and has been a referee for several reputed research journals.

• Preface xvii1 Novel Thermal Technologies: Trends and Prospects 1Amrita Preetam, Vipasha, Sushree Titikshya, Vivek Kumar, K.K Pant and S N Naik1.1 Introduction 11.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status and Trends 31.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies 61.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing 81.2.3 Preservation Process 91.3 Types of Thermal Technologies 111.3.1 Infrared Heating 121.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism 121.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating 131.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating 141.3.2 Microwave Heating 141.3.2.1 Principal and Mechanism 141.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry 171.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing Technologies 191.3.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Heating 241.3.3.1 Principal and Mechanism 241.3.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 261.3.3.3 Applications 271.3.4 Ohmic Heating 281.3.4.1 Principal and Mechanism 281.3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 311.3.4.3 Applications 331.4 Future Perspective of Novel Thermal Technologies 361.5 Conclusion 36References 372 Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments 45Sushree Titikshya, Monalisa Sahoo, Vivek Kumar and S.N Naik2.1 Introduction 452.2 Innovate Thermal Techniques for Food Reservation 472.3 Inactivation Mechanism of Targeted Microorganism 482.3.1 Action Approach and Inactivation Targets 492.4 Environmental Stress Adaption 502.4.1 Sublethal Injury 502.5 Resistance of Stress 512.5.1 Oxidative Stress 512.5.2 Osmotic Stress 522.5.3 Pressure 522.6 Various Techniques for Thermal Inactivation 522.6.1 Infrared Heating 522.6.1.1 Principle and Mechanism 522.6.1.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 532.6.2 Microwave Heating 572.6.2.1 Principle and Mechanism 572.6.2.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 582.6.3 Radiofrequency Heating 592.6.3.1 Principle and Mechanism 592.6.3.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 602.6.4 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology (DIC) 602.6.4.1 Principle and Mechanism 602.6.4.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 612.6.5 Ohmic Heating 622.6.5.1 Principle and Mechanism 622.6.5.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 632.7 Forthcoming Movements of Thermal Practices in Food Industry 642.8 Conclusion 65References 663 Blanching, Pasteurization and Sterilization: Principles and Applications 75Monalisa Sahoo, Sushree Titikshya, Pramod Aradwad, Vivek Kumar and S N Naik3.1 Introduction 763.2 Blanching: Principles & Mechanism 763.2.1 Types of Blanching 763.2.1.1 Hot Water Blanching 763.2.1.2 Steam Blanching 803.2.1.3 High Humidity Hot Air Impingement Blanching (HHAIB) 813.2.1.4 Microwave Blanching 813.2.1.5 Ohmic Blanching 853.2.1.6 Infrared Blanching 863.2.2 Application of Blanching 893.2.2.1 Inactivation of Enzymes 893.2.2.2 Enhancement of Product Quality and Dehydration 903.2.2.3 Toxic and Pesticides Residues Removal 903.2.2.4 Decreasing Microbial Load 903.2.2.5 Reducing Non-Enzymatic Browning Reaction 913.2.2.6 Peeling 913.2.2.7 Entrapped Air Removal 913.2.2.8 Enhancing Bioactive Extraction Efficiency 913.2.2.9 Other Applications 923.3 Pasteurization: Principles & Mechanism 923.3.1 Thermal Pasteurization 923.3.2 Traditional Thermal Pasteurization 933.3.3 Microwave and Radiofrequency Pasteurization 933.3.4 Ohmic Heating Pasteurization 943.3.5 Application of Pasteurization 983.4 Sterilization: Principles, Mechanism and Types of Sterilization 983.4.1 Conventional Sterilization Methods 993.4.2 Advanced Retorting 1003.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 1013.4.4 Pressure-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 1033.5 Conclusions 104References 1044 Aseptic Processing 117Malathi Nanjegowda, Bhaveshkumar Jani and Bansee Devani4.1 Introduction 1184.2 Aseptic Processing 1184.3 Principle of Thermal Sterilization 1214.3.1 Effect of Thermal Treatment on Enzymes 1234.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients and Quality 1234.3.3 Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Cooking Index (C0) 1244.3.4 Effect of Heat Treatments on Chemical Reactions in Food 1244.4 Components of Aseptic Processing 1244.4.1 Equipment Used in Aseptic/UHT Processing 1244.4.1.1 Indirect Heat Exchanger 1254.4.1.2 Direct Heat Exchanger 1264.4.1.3 Ohmic Heating (OH) 1264.5 Aseptic Packaging 1274.5.1 Types of Packaging Materials Used in Aseptic Processing 1274.5.2 Methods and Requirements of Decontamination of Packaging Materials 1284.6 Applications of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 1284.6.1 Milk Processing 1334.6.2 Non-Milk Products Processing 1354.7 Advantages of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 1364.8 Challenges of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 1374.9 Conclusion 137References 1385 Spray Drying: Principles and Applications 141Sukirti Joshi, Asutosh Mohapatra, Lavika Singh and Jatindra K Sahu5.1 Introduction 1425.2 Concentration of Feed Solution 1425.3 Atomization of Concentrated Feed 1435.3.1 Principle of Atomization 1435.3.2 Classification of Atomizers 1435.3.2.1 Rotary Atomizers 1445.3.2.2 Pressure Nozzle/Hydraulic Atomizer 1445.3.2.3 Two‐Fluid Nozzle Atomizer 1455.4 Droplet‐Hot Air Contact 1455.5 Drying of Droplets 1465.6 Particle Separation 1485.7 Effect of Process Parameters on Product Quality 1485.7.1 Process Parameters of Atomization 1505.7.2 Parameters of Spray‐Air Contact and Evaporation 1515.7.2.1 Spray Angle 1515.7.2.2 Aspirator Flow Rate 1515.7.2.3 Inlet Air Temperature 1515.7.2.4 Outlet Air Temperature 1525.7.2.5 Glass Transition Temperature 1525.7.2.6 Residence Time 1535.8 Classification of Spray Dryer 1535.8.1 Open-Cycle Spray Dryer 1535.8.2 Closed-Cycle Spray Dryer 1545.8.3 Semi‐Closed Cycle Spray Dryer 1545.8.4 Single‐Stage Spray Dryer 1545.8.5 Two‐Stage Spray Dryer 1545.8.6 Short‐Form Spray Dryer 1545.8.7 Tall‐Form Spray Dryer 1545.9 Morphological Characterization of Spray-Dried Particles 1555.10 Application of Spray Drying for Foods 1565.11 Wall Materials 1575.11.1 Carbohydrate-Based Wall Materials 1585.11.1.1 Starch 1585.11.1.2 Modified Starch 1585.11.1.3 Maltodextrins 1585.11.2 Cyclodextrins 1595.11.3 Gum Arabic 1595.11.4 Inulin 1595.11.5 Pectin 1605.11.6 Chitin and Chitosan 1605.11.7 Protein-Based Wall Materials 1605.11.7.1 Whey Protein Isolate 1615.11.7.2 Skim Milk Powder 1615.11.7.3 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) 1615.12 Encapsulation of Probiotics 1625.12.1 Choice of Bacterial Strain 1625.12.2 Response to Cellular Stresses 1635.12.3 Growth Conditions 1645.12.4 Effect of pH 1645.12.5 Harvesting Technique 1655.12.6 Total Solid Content of the Feed Concentrate 1655.13 Encapsulation of Vitamins 1655.14 Encapsulation of Flavours and Volatile Compounds 1665.14.1 Selective Diffusion Theory 1665.15 Conclusion and Perspectives 170References 1706 Solar Drying: Principles and Applications 179Baher M A Amer6.1 Introduction 1796.2 Principle of Solar Drying 1806.3 Construction of Solar Dryer 1816.4 Historical Classification of Solar Energy Drying Systems 1826.5 Storing Solar Energy for Drying 1856.6 Hybrid/Mixed Solar Drying System 1866.7 Solar Greenhouse Dryer 1886.8 Solar Drying Economy 1886.9 New Applications Related to Solar Drying 190References 1927 Fluidized Bed Drying: Recent Developments and Applications 197Praveen Saini, Nitin Kumar, Sunil Kumar and Anil Panghal7.1 Introduction 1977.2 Principle and Design Considerations of Fluidized Bed Dryer 1987.2.1 Spouted Bed Dryer 2017.2.2 Spout Fluidized Bed Dryer 2027.2.3 Hybrid Drying Techniques 2057.2.3.1 Microwave-Assisted FBD 2057.2.3.2 FIR-Assisted FBD 2067.2.3.3 Heat Pump–Assisted FBD 2077.2.3.4 Solar-Assisted FBD 2077.3 Design Alterations for Improved Fluidization Capacity 2087.3.1 Vibrated Fluidized Bed 2087.3.2 Agitated Fluidized Bed 2097.3.3 Centrifugal Fluidized Bed 2107.4 Energy Consumption in Fluidized Bed Drying 2117.5 Effect of Fluidized Bed Drying on the Quality 2127.6 Applications of Fluidized Bed Drying 2157.7 Concluding Remarks 215References 2158 Dehumidifier Assisted Drying: Recent Developments 221Vaishali Wankhade, Vaishali Pande, Monalisa Sahoo and Chirasmita Panigrahi8.1 Introduction 2218.2 Absorbent Air Dryer 2228.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer 2238.2.2 Design Considerations and Components of the Absorbent Air Drier 2238.2.2.1 Desiccant Drying System 2238.2.3 Performance Indicators of Desiccant Air Dryer System 2268.2.3.1 Low Temperature Drying With No Temperature Control and Air Circulation System 2278.2.3.2 Low Temperature Drying With Air Circulation and Temperature Control 2288.3 Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 2288.3.1 Working Principles of a Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 2298.3.2 Performance Indicators of Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 2318.4 Applications of Dehumidifier-Assisted Dryers in Agriculture and Food Processing 2338.5 Concluding Remarks 234References 2349 Refractance Window Drying: Principles and Applications 237Peter Waboi Mwaurah, Modiri Dirisca Setlhoka and Tanu Malik9.1 Introduction 2389.2 Refractance Window Drying System 2399.2.1 History and Origin 2399.2.2 Components and Working of the Dryer 2409.2.3 Principle of Operation 2429.3 Heat Transfer and Drying Kinetics 2449.3.1 Drying Rate and Moisture Reduction Rate 2459.4 Effect of Process Parameters on Drying 2459.4.1 Effect of Temperature of the Hot Circulating Water 2459.4.2 Effect of Product Inlet Temperature and Thickness 2469.4.3 Effect of Residence Time 2479.4.4 Effect of Ambient Air Temperature (Air Convection) 2479.5 Comparison of Refractance Window Dryer with Other Types of Dryers 2479.6 Effect of Refractance Window Drying on Quality of Food Products 2489.6.1 Effects on Food Color 2499.6.2 Effects on Bioactive Compounds 2509.6.2.1 Carotene Retention 2519.6.2.2 Ascorbic Acid Retention 2529.6.2.3 Anthocyanin Retention 2529.7 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Food and Agriculture 2539.7.1 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Preservation of Heat-Sensitive and Bioactive Compounds 2539.7.2 Applications of Refractance Window Drying on Food Safety 2549.8 Advantages and Limitations of Refractance Window Dryer 2559.9 Recent Developments in Refractance Window Drying 2559.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 256References 25710 Ohmic Heating: Principles and Applications 261Sourav Misra, Shubham Mandliya and Chirasmita Panigrahi10.1 Introduction 26110.2 Basic Principles 26310.3 Process Parameters 26510.3.1 Electrical Conductivity 26510.3.2 Electrical Field Strength 26610.3.3 Frequency and Waveform 26710.3.4 Product Size, Viscosity, and Heat Capacity 26710.3.5 Particle Concentration 26710.3.6 Ionic Concentration 26710.3.7 Electrodes 26810.4 Equipment Design 26810.5 Application 27010.5.1 Blanching 27610.5.2 Pasteurisation/Sterilization 27610.5.3 Extraction 27710.5.4 Dehydration 27810.5.5 Fermentation 27910.5.6 Ohmic Thawing 28010.6 Effect of Ohmic Heating on Quality Characteristics of Food Products 28010.6.1 Starch and Flours 28010.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI) and Water Solubility Index (WSI) 28010.6.1.2 Pasting Properties 28010.6.1.3 Thermal Properties 28110.6.2 Meat Products 28210.6.3 Fruits and Vegetable Products 28210.6.3.1 Electrical Properties 28210.6.3.2 Soluble Solids Content and Acidity 28210.6.3.3 Vitamins 28310.6.3.4 Flavor Compounds 28410.6.3.5 Phenolic Compounds 28410.6.3.6 Colour Properties 28410.6.3.7 Change in Chlorophyll Content 28510.6.3.8 Textural Properties 28510.6.3.9 Sensory Properties 28610.6.4 Dairy Products 28610.6.5 Seafoods 29010.7 Advantages of Ohmic Heating 29010.8 Disadvantages of Ohmic Heating 29110.9 Conclusions 291References 29211 Microwave Food Processing: Principles and Applications 301Jean-Claude Laguerre and Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha11.1 Introduction 30111.2 Principles of Microwave Heating 30211.2.1 Nature of Microwaves 30211.2.1.1 Propagation of EM Waves in Free Space 30211.2.1.2 Propagation of EM Waves in Matter 30611.2.2 Mechanism of Microwave Heating 30911.2.2.1 Dielectric Characteristic of a Material 30911.2.2.2 Waves-Product Interactions 31211.2.3 Transmission and Absorption of a Wave in a Material 31611.2.3.1 Expression of Transmitted Power 31611.2.3.2 Penetration Depths 31711.2.3.3 Power Dissipation 31911.3 Applications 32011.3.1 Microwave Baking 32011.3.2 Microwave Blanching 32311.3.3 Microwave Tempering and Thawing 32611.3.4 Microwave Drying 32811.3.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying 32911.3.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Vacuum Drying 33011.3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Freeze-Drying 33011.3.5 Microwave Pasteurization and Sterilization 331References 33412 Infrared Radiation: Principles and Applications in Food Processing 349Puneet Kumar, Subir Kumar Chakraborty and Lalita12.1 Introduction 35012.2 Mechanism of Heat Transfer 35112.2.1 Principles of IR Heating 35112.2.1.1 Planck’s Law 35212.2.1.2 Wien’s Displacement Law 35212.2.1.3 Stefan–Boltzmann’s Law 35212.2.2 Source of IR Radiations 35312.2.2.1 Natural Source 35412.2.2.2 Artificial Sources 35412.3 Factors Affecting the Absorption of Energy 35612.3.1 Characteristics of Food Materials 35712.3.1.1 Composition 35712.3.1.2 Layer Thickness 35712.3.2 IR Parameters 35712.3.2.1 Wavelength of IR Rays 35812.3.2.2 IR Intensity 35812.3.2.3 Depth of Penetration 35812.3.3 Advantages of IR Heating Over Conventional Heating Methods 35912.4 Applications of IR in Food Processing 35912.4.1 Drying 36012.4.2 Peeling 36112.4.3 Blanching 36312.4.4 Microbial Decontamination 36412.5 IR-Assisted Hybrid Drying Technologies 36612.5.1 IR-Freeze-Drying 36612.5.2 Hot Air-Assisted IR Heating 36712.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR 36812.6 Conclusion 368References 36913 Radiofrequency Heating 375Chirasmita Panigrahi, Monalisha Sahoo, Vaishali Wankhade and Siddharth Vishwakarma13.1 Introduction 37613.2 History of RF Heating 37713.3 Principles and Equipment 37813.3.1 Basic Mechanism of Dielectric Heating 37813.3.1.1 Basic Mechanism and Working of Radiofrequency Heating 37913.3.1.2 Basic Mechanism and Working of Microwave Heating 38013.3.2 Factors of Food Affecting the Performance of RF Processing 38013.3.2.1 Permittivity and Loss Factor 38013.3.2.2 Power Density and Penetration Depth 38113.3.2.3 Wave Impedance and Power Reflection 38213.3.3 Comparison of RF Heating With Other Methods 38313.3.4 Lab Scale and Commercial Scale of RF Equipment 38513.3.4.1 Radiofrequency Processing of Food at Lab Scale 38613.3.4.2 Radiofrequency Processing of Food at Industrial Scale 38713.4 Applications in Food Processing 38813.4.1 Drying 38813.4.2 Thawing 39313.4.3 Roasting 39413.4.4 Baking 39413.4.5 Disinfestation 39513.4.6 Blanching 39513.4.7 Pasteurization/Sterilization 39613.5 Technological Constraints, Health Hazards, and Safety Aspects 39913.6 Commercialization Aspects and Future Trends 40213.7 Conclusions 404References 40414 Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry 415Nartaj Singh and Prashant Bagade14.1 Introduction 41614.1.1 Food Quality 41714.1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Food Processing 41914.1.1.2 Historical Trends in Food Quality 42114.1.1.3 Food Quality Standards and its Requirements 42314.1.1.4 Role of Technology in Building Food Quality Within the Industry 44014.1.1.5 Regulations and their Requirements 44414.1.2 Food Safety 44514.1.2.1 Primary and Secondary Food Production 44514.1.2.2 Historical Trends in Food Safety 44614.1.2.3 Food Safety Standards and its Requirements 44714.1.2.4 Role of Technology in Building Food Safety Within Industry 45014.2 Future Trends in Quality and Food Safety 45114.3 Conclusion 453References 453Index 455