Terraforming Mars

Martin Beech, PhD is Professor Emeritus at the University of Regina, and Campion College, Saskatchewan, Canada. He has conducted and published research in the many areas of astronomy, planetary science, and the history of science. His main astronomy research interests are in the area of small solar system bodies (asteroids, comets, meteoroids, and meteorites).Professor J. Seckbach, PhD is a retired senior academician at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. He earned his PhD from the University of Chicago and did a post-doctorate in the Division of Biology at Caltech, in Pasadena, CA. He served at Louisiana State University (LSU), Baton Rouge, LA, USA, as the first selected Chair for the Louisiana Sea Grant and Technology transfer. Professor Joseph Seckbach has edited over 40 scientific books and authored about 140 scientific articles. Richard Gordon, PhD is a theoretical biologist and retired from the Department of Radiology, University of Manitoba in 2011. Presently at Gulf Specimen Marine Lab & Aquarium, Panacea, Florida and Adjunct Professor, C.S. Mott Center for Human Growth & Development, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Wayne State University, Detroit Michigan. Interest in exobiology (now astrobiology) dates from 1960s undergraduate work on organic matter in the Orgueil meteorite with Edward Anders. Has published critical reviews of panspermia and the history of discoveries of life in meteorites.

• Preface xvPart 1: Introduction 11 Terraforming and Colonizing Mars 3Giancarlo Genta1.1 Introduction 31.2 Earth: A Terraformed Planet 41.3 Planetary Environments 61.4 Terraforming Mars 101.5 The Role of Solar Wind 151.6 Ethical Aspects 161.7 Venus, Moon, Titan… 19References 21Part 2: Engineering Mars 232 Terraforming Worlds: Humans Playing Games of Gods 25Nilo Serpa and Richard CathcartEarly Mars 26Oceans Here and There 28The Mars We are Creating Here 30Mars: An Arena of Delusions? 34References 353 Mars, A Stepping-Stone World, Macro-Engineered 37Richard B. Cathcart3.1 Introduction 373.2 Mars-Crust as Kinetic Architecture 383.3 A Crust-Infrastructure Mixture 393.4 Infrastructure and Life-Styles 403.5 Atmosphere Enhancements for Mars 443.6 Between Then and Now 46Acknowledgments 48References 484 Efficient Martian Settlement with the Mars Terraformer Transfer (MATT) and the Omaha Trail 51Gary Stewart4.1 Introduction 514.2 Construction Efficiencies of MATT’s Small-Scale Terraformation 524.2.1 Impact Terraformation for Settlement 524.2.2 Impactor Redirection with DE-STARLITE 554.2.3 Subaqueous Hab Network at Omaha Crater 574.3 Provisioning Efficiencies of the Omaha Trail 614.3.1 Deimos Dock 634.3.2 Mars Lift 644.3.3 Arestation 664.3.4 Deimos Rail Launcher (DRL) 664.4 Cosmic Ray Protection: From Omaha Trail to Omaha Shield 674.5 Conclusion 68References 695 Mars Colonization: Beyond Getting There 73Igor Levchenko, Shuyan Xu, Stéphane Mazouffre, Michael Keidar and Kateryna Bazaka5.1 Mars Colonization – Do We Need it? 735.2 Legal Considerations 785.2.1 Do Earth Laws Apply To Mars Colonists? 785.2.2 Sovereignty 795.2.3 Human Rights 805.2.4 Abortion 825.3 Ethical Considerations 835.3.1 General 835.3.2 Human Reproduction – Ethical Considerations 845.3.3 Social Isolation and No Privacy – Rolled into One 855.3.4 Advocacy for Mars – is it Ethical at All to Colonize it? 865.4 Consideration of Resources 885.5 Quo Vadis, the Only Civilization We Know? 895.6 Afterword. Where are We Three Years Later? 895.6.1 Current Programs and Their Status – in Brief 895.6.2 Any News About Mars? 905.6.3 Tasks and Challenges 90Acknowledgements 92References 92Part 3: Ethical Exploration 996 The Ethics of Terraforming: A Critical Survey of Six Arguments 101Ian Stoner6.1 Introduction 1016.2 Audience and Method 1026.3 Preservationist Arguments 1036.3.1 We Should Preserve Mars’s Value as a Unique Object of Scientific Interest 1036.3.2 We Should Preserve the Integrity of the Martian Wilderness 1046.3.3 We Should Avoid Expressing Colonialist Vices 1066.4 Interventionist Arguments 1086.4.1 We Should Fulfill our Inborn Nature as Pioneers 1086.4.2 We Should Increase Our Species’ Chance of Long-Term Survival 1096.4.3 We Should Rehabilitate Mars for Martians 1126.5 Conclusion 113Acknowledgments 114References 1147 Homo Reductio Eco-Nihilism and Human Colonization of Other Worlds 117Kelly Smith7.1 Introduction 1177.2 Implicit Assumptions 1197.3 Conclusion 121Acknowledgements 122References 1228 Ethical, Political and Legal Challenges Relating to Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 123Konrad Szocik8.1 Introduction 1238.2 Ethical Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 1248.3 Ethics of Human Enhancement for Space 1258.4 Environmental Ethics in Space 1258.5 Political Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 1278.6 Legal Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 1288.7 Sexual and Reproductive Laws in a Mars Colony 1298.8 Migration Law in Space 1308.9 Why Terraforming Mars May Be Necessary from Ethical, Political and Legal Perspectives 1328.10 Conclusions 133References 133Part 4: Indigenous Life on Mars 1359 Life on Mars: Past, Present, and Future 137Martin Beech and Mark Comte9.1 A Very Brief Historical Introduction 1379.2 Indigenous Life: Past and Present 1419.2.1 Beginnings 1459.2.2 The Viking Experiments 1489.2.3 Martian Meteorites 1499.2.4 In Plain Sight 1519.3 Seeded Life: The Future 1549.4 Per Aspera ad Astra 156References 15710 Terraforming on Early Mars? 161M. Polgári, I. Gyollai and Sz. Bérczi10.1 Introduction 16210.1.1 Aspects of Biogenicity 16310.1.2 Methodology 16310.1.3 Multihierarchical System Analyses 16410.2 Outline of Section 10.2 16710.2.1 Review of Research on Martian Life 16710.2.2 Biosignatures in Martian Meteorites Based on Mineralogical and Textural Investigation 16910.2.3 Biosignatures in Chondritic Meteorites 16910.2.3.1 Interpretations 17510.2.3.2 Clay Formation 18210.2.3.3 Interpretation No. 1 18310.2.3.4 Interpretation No. 2 (Preferred) 18310.2.4 Terrestrial Analogues of Biosignatures 18610.2.5 Implications to Terraforming of Ancient Life on Mars on the Basis of Terrestrial and Meteoritic Analogues 19910.3 Novel Interpretation of the Formation Process Based on Mineral Assemblages 26510.3.1 Martian Meteorites 26510.3.2 Interpretation of Mineral Assemblages on Mars 26510.3.3 Novel Interpretation of Mineral Dataset of Exploration of Curiosity in Gale Crater 26710.4 Conclusion 268Acknowledgment 270References 270Part 5: Living on Mars 28111 Omaha Field – A Magnetostatic Cosmic Radiation Shield for a Crewed Mars Facility 283Gary Stewart11.1 Introduction 28311.2 Methods 28411.2.1 Software 28411.2.2 Testing 28411.3 Design 28411.3.1 Crater 28411.3.2 Current 28511.3.3 Circuits 28711.4 Results 28811.4.1 Shielding Against 500 MeV Protons 28811.4.2 Shielding Against 1 GeV Protons 28911.4.3 Shielding Effectiveness in the Mars Environment 29011.5 Discussion 29111.5.1 Electrostatics 29111.5.2 Refrigeration 29111.5.3 Self-Shielding Solenoids 29211.5.4 Alternate Self-Shielding and Source-Shielding 29311.5.5 Safety in Transit Across Crater Rim 29411.5.6 Safety in Spacecraft Launch and Landing 295References 29512 Mars Future Settlements: Active Radiation Shielding and Design Criteria About Habitats and Infrastructures 297Marco Peroni12.1 Introduction 29712.2 The Problem of Cosmic Radiations 29812.3 The Protection System with Artificial Magnetic Fields 29912.4 Details of Our Proposal 30212.5 Further Developments 30912.6 Modular Settlement on Mars 309Acknowledgments 312References 31213 Crop Growth and Viability of Seeds on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants 313G.W.W. Wamelink, J.Y. Frissel, W.H.J. Krijnen and M.R. Verwoert13.1 Introduction 31313.2 Materials and Methods 31413.2.1 Regoliths 31413.2.2 Species Selection 31513.2.3 Organic Matter and Bacteria 31613.2.4 Experimental Design 31713.2.5 Harvest and Measurements 31713.3 Results 31813.3.1 Fruit Setting and Biomass 31813.3.2 Seed Weight and Germination 31813.4 Discussion 31913.5 Outlook Issues for the Future 320Acknowledgements 322References 322Appendix 32414 The First Settlement of Mars 331Chris Hajduk14.1 Introduction 33114.2 Colony Location 33214.3 Colony Timeline 33314.3.1 Setup Phase 33314.3.2 Investment Phase 33414.3.3 Self-Sufficiency 33514.4 Colony Design 33514.5 The Basics – Power, Air, Water, Food 33614.5.1 Food 33614.5.2 Water 33914.5.3 Air 34114.5.4 Power 34214.6 The Material World 34314.6.1 Metals 34414.6.2 Plastics 34414.6.3 Ceramics and Composites 34414.6.4 Mining 34414.7 Exports, Economics, Investment and Cash Flow 34614.7.1 Interplanetary Real Estate 34614.7.2 Intellectual Property Export 34714.7.3 Research Tourism 34714.7.4 Investment and Cash Flow 34714.8 Politics – A Socialist’s World 34914.9 Conclusion and Further Thoughts 349References 349Part 6: In Situ Resources 35315 Vulcanism on Mars 355Ian M. Coulson15.1 Introduction 35515.2 Martian Geology 35615.2.1 Mars: Creation and Thermal Evolution 35715.2.2 The Martian Crust 35815.3 Vulcanism 35815.3.1 Types of Volcanoes 35915.3.1.1 Earth 35915.3.1.2 Mars 36115.3.2 Recognition of Other Styles of Vulcanism 36315.3.3 Martian Meteorites 36415.3.4 Is Mars Still Volcanically Active? 366References 36716 Potential Impact-Related Mineral Resources on Mars 371Jake R. Crandall, Justin Filiberto and Sally L. Potter-McIntyreIntroduction 371Terrestrial Ore Deposit Types Associated with Impact Craters 374Progenetic Deposits 374Syngenetic Deposits 376Epigenetic Deposits 377Martian Target Craters 377Ritchey Crater 377Contents xiGale Crater 378Gusev Crater 380Conclusions 381References 38217 Red Gold – Practical Methods for Precious-Metal Survey, Open-Pit Mining, and Open-Air Refining on Mars 389Gary Stewart17.1 Introduction 38917.2 Martian Precious-Metal Ore from Asteroids 39017.3 Martian Precious-Metal Survey and Physical Assay 39217.4 “Mars Base Alpha” – A Red Gold Mining Camp 39417.5 Semi-Autonomous Open-Pit Mining 39617.6 Comminution and Separation of Meteorite Ore 39617.7 Extracting Metals with Induction/Microwave Smelter 39717.8 Refining with Hydrometallurgical Recovery and the Miller Process 39817.9 Separating Precious Metals with Saltwater Electrolysis 40017.10 Kovar Foundry 40017.11 Maximizing ISRU, Minimizing Mass and Complexity 40217.12 Scale-Up and Scale-Out 40517.13 Conclusion, with Observations and Recommendations 407References 409Part 7: Terraforming Mars 41518 Terraforming Mars: A Cabinet of Curiosities 417Martin Beech18.1 Introduction and Overview 41718.2 Planet Mars: A Brief Observational History and Overview 42518.3 The Beginnings of Change 42818.4 The Foundations 43118.5 First Blush 43818.6 Digging In 44118.7 (re)Building the Martian Atmosphere 44618.8 Magnetic Shielding 45418.9 Heating the Ground 45718.10 A Question of Time 45818.11 Conclusions 460References 46119 Terraforming Mars Rapidly Using Today’s Level of Technology 467Mark Culaj19.1 Introduction 46719.2 Solar Wind 46819.2.1 Solar Wind Abundances 46919.2.2 Magnetic Lens 46919.3 Conclusions 475Acknowledgments 477References 47720 System Engineering Analysis of Terraforming Mars with an Emphasis on Resource Importation Technology 479Brandon Wong20.1 Summary 47920.2 Introduction 48020.3 Key Problem 48220.4 Key Stakeholders 48220.5 Goals 48320.6 Macro Level Alternatives 48320.6.1 Terraforming 48320.6.2 Paraterraforming 48420.6.3 Bioforming 48520.7 Macro-Level Trade Study 48620.8 Macro-Level Conclusions 48720.8.1 Concept of Operations 48720.8.2 High-Level Requirements 48720.8.3 Requirements Decomposition 48720.8.4 Macro High-Level Design 48820.9 Terraforming Efforts System - Detailed Requirements 48920.10 Space Transportation System 49220.11 Importing Resources Subsystem 49220.11.1 Resources Needed 49220.11.2 Resource Locations 49320.11.3 Subsystem Needs 49420.11.3.1 Subsystem Goals for Importing Resources Subsystem 49420.11.3.2 Detailed Requirements for Importing Resources Subsystem 49420.11.3.3 Alternatives for the Importing Resources Subsystem 49520.11.3.4 Importing Resources Trade Study 50420.11.3.5 Findings 50620.11.3.6 Importing Resources Subsystem Design 50620.12 Risks 50720.12.1 Macro-Level Risks 50720.12.2 Importing Resources Subsystem Risks 50920.13 Lean Strategies 51120.14 Ethical Considerations 51220.15 Overall Conclusions 51320.15.1 Proposed Implementation Plan 51320.16 Acknowledgements 51420.17 Appendix 51420.17.1 Requirements Flowdown to System Implementation 514References 53021 The Potential of Pioneer Lichens in Terraforming Mars 533Richard A. Armstrong21.1 Introduction 53321.2 Potential Role of Lichens in Terraformation 53421.3 Exploiting Indigenous Lichens 53621.4 Exploiting Lichen Symbionts on Mars 53821.5 Inoculating Lichen Symbionts from Earth Cultures 54021.6 Transplanting Terrestrial Lichens to Mars 54121.7 Conclusions 546References 547Index 555