Sustainable Water Treatment

Siddhartha Moulik, PhD, received his PhD from CSIR-Indian Institute Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India. With years of experience, he has worked on projects with some of the most prestigious companies and laboratories in the industry. He has published 23 articles in journals of international repute, filed three patents, and published 15 book chapters. He is also the recipient of 15 prestigious national awards, and he has published two books with Scrivener Publishing. Aditi Mullick, PhD, received her PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. She has published ten articles in journals of international repute, filed two patents, and published one book thus far, also with Scrivener Publishing. She is also the recipient of seven prestigious national awards and fellowships. Anirban Roy, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at BITS Pilani Goa campus. He has published 20 articles in journals of international repute, filed eight patents, and published one book thus far. He also has ample industrial experience, as well as academic experience, in the field.

• Introduction xixSection I: Advanced Oxidation Processes 11 Advanced Oxidation Processes: Fundamental, Technologies, Applications and Recent Advances 3Akshat Khandelwal and Saroj Sundar Baral1.1 Introduction 41.2 Background and Global Trend of Advanced Oxidation Process 51.3 Advanced Oxidation Systems 81.3.1 Ozone-Based AOP 91.3.2 UV/H2O2 101.3.3 Radiation 101.3.4 Fenton Reaction 121.3.5 Photocatalytic 131.3.6 Electrochemical Oxidation 141.4 Comparison and Challenges of AOP Technologies 151.5 Conclusion and Perspective 19References 202 A Historical Approach for Integration of Cavitation Technology with Conventional Wastewater Treatment Processes 27Bhaskar Bethi, G. B. Radhika, Shirish H. Sonawane, Shrikant Barkade and Ravindra Gaikwad2.1 Introduction to Cavitation for Wastewater Treatment 282.1.1 Mechanistic Aspects of Ultrasound Cavitation 282.1.2 Mechanistic Aspects of Hydrodynamic Cavitation 292.2 Importance of Integrating Water Treatment Technology in Present Scenario 302.3 Integration Ultrasound Cavitation (UC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 312.3.1 Sonosorption (UC+ Adsorption) 322.3.2 Son-Chemical Oxidation (UC + Chemical Oxidation) 382.3.3 UC+Filtration 392.4 Integration of Hydrodynamic Cavitation (HC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 402.4.1 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Adsorption 402.4.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Biological Oxidation 422.4.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Chemical Treatment 432.5 Scale-Up Issues with Ultrasound Cavitation Process 502.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives: Hydrodynamic Cavitation as a Future Technology 50Acknowledgements 51References 513 Hydrodynamic Cavitation: Route to Greener Technology for Wastewater Treatment 57Anupam Mukherjee, Ravi Teja, Aditi Mullick, Subhankar Roy, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy3.1 Introduction 583.2 Cavitation: General Perspective 723.2.1 Phase Transition 723.2.2 Types of Cavitation 733.2.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 743.2.4 Bubble Dynamics Model 803.2.4.1 Rayleigh-Plesset Equation 803.2.4.2 Bubble Contents 803.2.4.3 Nonequilibrium Effects 843.2.5 Physio-Chemical Effects 843.2.5.1 Thermodynamic Effects 853.2.5.2 Mechanical Effects 863.2.5.3 Chemical Effects 873.2.5.4 Biological Effects 883.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors 883.3.1 Liquid Whistle Reactors 893.3.2 High-Speed Homogenizers 893.3.3 Micro-Fluidizers 903.3.4 High-Pressure Homogenizers 903.3.5 Orifice Plates Setup 913.3.5.1 Effect of the Ratio of Total Perimeter to Total Flow Area 923.3.5.2 Effect of Flow Area to the Cross-Sectional Area of the Pipe 923.3.6 Venture Device Setup 923.3.6.1 Effect of Divergence Angle 933.3.6.2 Effect of the Ratio of Throat Diameter/Height to Length 943.3.7 Vortex-Based HC Reactor 943.4 Effect of Operating Parameters of HC 943.4.1 Effect of Inlet Pressure 943.4.2 Effect of Temperature 953.4.3 Effect of Initial Concentration of Pollutant 963.4.4 Effect of Treatment Time 963.4.5 Effect of pH 973.5 Toxicity Assessment 973.6 Techno-Economic Feasibility 1003.7 Applications 1013.8 Conclusions and Thoughts About the Future 1023.9 Acknowledgement 1033.10 Disclosure 103Nomenclature 103References 1054 Recent Trends in Ozonation Technology: Theory and Application 117Anupam Mukherjee, Dror Avisar and Anirban Roy4.1 Introduction 1184.2 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 1194.3 Mass Transfer of Ozone in Water 1254.3.1 Solubility of Ozone in Water 1264.3.1.1 Model for Determining the True Solubility Concentration 1264.3.2 Mass Transfer Model of Ozone in Water 1284.3.3 Henry and Volumetric Mass Transfer Coefficient Determination 1334.3.3.1 Microscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 1344.3.3.2 Macroscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 1344.3.3.3 Ozone Balance at Constant Ozone Concentrations 1364.3.4 Single Bubble Model of Mass Transfer 1374.3.5 Decomposition of Ozone in Water 1444.3.6 Ozone Contactors and Energy Requirement 1464.4 Factors Affecting Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Bubble Column Reactor 1474.4.1 Fluid Dynamics and Regime Analysis 1484.4.2 Gas Holdup 1494.4.3 Bubble Characteristics 1494.4.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient 1504.5 Application 1504.6 Conclusion and Thoughts About the Future 158Acknowledgement 158Nomenclature 158References 161Section II: Nanoparticle-Based Treatment 1715 Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials for Water Treatment: Application in Fixed Bed Column Filter 173Chhaya, Dibyanshu, Sneha Singh and Trishikhi Raychoudhury5.1 Introduction 1745.2 Target Contaminants: Performance of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials 1785.2.1 Inorganic Contaminants 1785.2.1.1 Heavy Metals 1785.2.1.2 Nonmetallic Contaminant 1955.2.2 Organic Contaminant 1975.2.2.1 Organic Dyes 1975.2.2.2 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 2025.2.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) 2035.2.2.4 Miscellaneous Aromatic Pollutant 2215.2.3 Emerging Contaminants 2225.2.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 2225.2.3.2 Miscellaneous Compounds 2255.3 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter for Water Treatment 2265.3.1 Fate and Transport Process of Contaminants in the Fixed Bed Column Filter 2265.3.2 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter 228References 2316 Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment: Potential and Barriers in Industrialization 245Snehasis Bhakta6.1 Introduction 2456.2 Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 2486.2.1 Nanotechnological Processes for Wastewater Treatment 2496.2.1.1 Nanofiltration 2496.2.1.2 Adsorption 2496.2.1.3 Photocatalysis 2496.2.1.4 Disinfection 2506.2.2 Different Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment 2506.2.2.1 Zerovalent Metal Nanoparticles 2506.2.2.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 2516.2.2.3 Other Nanoparticles 2526.3 Smart Nanomaterials: Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 2536.3.1 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 2536.3.2 Application of MIP-Based Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 2546.3.2.1 Recognition of Pollutants 2546.3.2.2 Removal of Pollutants 2556.3.2.3 Catalytic Degradation of Organic Molecules 2566.3.3 Barriers in Industrialization 2576.4 Cheap Alternative Nanomaterials 2576.4.1 Nanoclay for Wastewater Treatment 2586.4.1.1 Water Filtration by Nanoclays 2586.4.1.2 Water Treatment by Hybrid Gel 2586.4.1.3 Nanosponges 2596.4.2 Nanocellulose for Wastewater Treatment 2596.4.2.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metals by Nanocellulose 2606.4.2.2 Adsorption of Dyes by Nanocellulose 2606.4.2.3 Barriers in Industrialization 2606.5 Toxicity Associated with Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment 2616.6 Barriers in Industrialization 2626.7 Future Aspect and Conclusions 263References 264Section III: Membrane-Based Treatment 2717 Microbial Fuel Cell Technology for Wastewater Treatment 273Nilesh Vijay Rane, Alka Kumari, Chandrakant Holkar, Dipak V. Pinjari and Aniruddha B. Pandit7.1 Introduction 2747.2 Microbial Fuel Cell 2767.2.1 Working Principle 2767.2.2 Role of MFC Components 2797.2.3 Performance Indicator of MFC 2807.2.4 Design Parameters 2827.2.5 Types of Microbial Fuel Cell 2837.3 Recent Development in MFC Component 2867.3.1 Recent Development in Cathode Used in MFC 2867.3.2 Recent Development in Anode Used in MFC 2917.3.3 Recent Developments in Membranes Used in MFC 2957.4 MFC for Wastewater Treatment 2987.4.1 Advantages of MFC Over Conventional Treatment 2997.4.2 Challenges in the Wastewater Treatment Using MFC 3007.5 Different Ways for Increasing the Throughput of MFC 3017.5.1 Big Reactor Size 3017.5.2 Stacking 3027.5.3 Cathode 3037.5.4 Anode 3037.5.5 Separating Material 3047.5.6 Harnessing Output Energy 3047.5.7 Increasing Long-Term Stability 3057.5.8 Coupling of MFC with Other Techniques 3057.6 Different Case Studies Indicating Commercial Use of MFC 3067.7 Other Applications of MFC 3107.8 Conclusions and Recommendations (Future Work) 311References 3138 Ceramic Membranes in Water Treatment: Potential and Challenges for Technology Development 325Debarati Mukherjee and Sourja Ghosh8.1 Introduction 3268.1.1 Background and Current State-of-the-Art 3268.1.2 Ceramic Membranes: An Approach to Trade-Off the Bridge Between Theoretical Research and Industrial Applications 3278.1.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 3298.1.4 Domestic Wastewater Treatment 3418.2 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater and Drinking Water 3488.2.1 Arsenic Contaminated Water 3488.2.2 Treatment of Fluoride Contaminated Water 3508.2.3 Treatment of Nitrate Contaminated Water 3518.2.4 Treatment of Water Spiked with Emerging Contaminants 3528.2.5 Treatment of Water Contaminated with Pathogens 3548.3 Classification of Filtration Based on Configuration 3578.3.1 Direct Membrane Filtration 3578.3.2 Hybrid Approaches 3608.4 Pilot-Scale Studies 3688.5 Challenges of Ceramic Membranes 3698.6 Conclusion and Future Scope of Ceramic Membranes 370References 3719 Membrane Distillation for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 383Sarita Kalla, Rakesh Baghel, Sushant Upadhyaya and Kailash Singh9.1 Introduction 3839.2 Membrane Distillation and Its Configurations 3849.3 Sources of Acidic Effluent 3859.4 Applications of MD for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 3879.5 Hybrid MD Process 3889.6 Implications 395References 39510 Demonstration of Long-Term Assessment on Performance of VMD for Textile Wastewater Treatment 401Rakesh Baghel, Sarita Kalla, Sushant Upadhyaya and S. P. Chaurasia10.1 Introduction 40110.2 Transport Mechanism 40310.3 Impact of Process Variables on Permeate Flux 40510.4 Long-Term Performance Analysis of VMD 40810.5 Scale Formation in Long-Term Assessment 411Conclusion 412Nomenclature 412Greek Symbols 413References 413Section IV: Emerging Technologies & Processes 41511 Application of Zero Valent Iron to Removal Chromium and Other Heavy Metals in Metallurgical Wastewater 417Khac-Uan Do, Thi-Lien Le and Thuy-Lan Nguyen11.1 Introduction 41811.1.1 Wastewater Sources from Metallurgical Factories 41811.1.2 Characteristics of Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 41911.1.3 Conventional Technologies for Treating Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 42011.1.4 Zero Valent Iron for Removing Heavy Metals 42211.1.5 Objectives of the Study 42211.2 Materials and Methods 42311.2.1 Metallurgical Wastewater 42311.2.2 Preparation of Zero Valent Iron 42411.2.3 Batch Experiments 42411.2.4 Analysis Methods 42511.3 Results and Discussion 42811.3.1 Effects of pH on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 42811.3.2 Effects of Feo on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 43011.3.3 Effects of Contact Time on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 43111.3.4 Effects of pH on Heavy Metals Removal 43211.3.5 Effects of PAC on Heavy Metals Removal 43311.3.6 Effects of PAM on Heavy Metals Removal 43411.4 Conclusion 435Acknowledgements 436References 43612 Removal of Arsenic and Fluoride from Water Using Novel Technologies 441Ishita Sarkar, Sankha Chakrabortty, Jayato Nayak and Parimal Pal12.1 Background Study of Arsenic 44212.1.1 Source and Existence of Arsenic 44212.1.2 Effects of Arsenic 44312.1.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Arsenic in Drinking Water 44412.2 Background Study of Fluoride 44512.2.1 Source and Existence of Fluoride 44512.2.2 Effects of Fluoride 44512.2.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Fluoride in Drinking Water 44612.3 Technologies Used for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 44712.3.1 Oxidation Method 44712.3.2 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 45012.3.3 Ion-Exchange Method 45012.3.4 Adsorption Method 45112.4 Technologies for Fluoride Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 45612.4.1 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 45612.4.2 Nalgonda Technique 45612.4.3 Adsorption Method 45812.4.4 Ion-Exchange Method 45812.5 Membrane Technology Used for Arsenic and Fluoride Mitigations 46012.5.1 Introduction of Membrane Technology 46012.5.2 Arsenic Removal by Membrane Filtration 46212.5.2.1 Arsenic Removal by Microfiltration System 46212.5.2.2 Arsenic Removal by Ultrafiltration System 46412.5.2.3 Arsenic Removal by Nanofiltration System 46612.5.2.4 Arsenic Removal by Other Membrane-Based Process 47212.5.3 Fluoride Removal by Different Membrane Filtration System 475References 48013 A Zero Liquid Discharge Strategy with MSF Coupled with Crystallizer 487Jasneet Kaur Pala, Siddhartha Moulik, Asim K. Ghosh, Reddi Kamesh and Anirban Roy13.1 Introduction 48813.2 Minimum Energy Required for Desalination Process 49013.2.1 Minimum Work Requirement 49213.2.2 Recovery Ratio 49413.3 Methodology and Simulation 49413.3.1 MSF Process Description 49413.3.2 Crystallizer Process Description 49513.3.3 Modeling and Simulation 49613.3.4 Input Parameters 50113.4 Results and Discussion 50413.4.1 Comparison of Energy Demand Between Simulated Model and Theoretical Model 50413.4.2 Impact of Temperature and Flowrate on Thermal Energy 50713.4.3 Impact on Thermal Energy During MLD and ZLD 50713.4.4 Crystallization of Salts 51113.5 Conclusion 51113.6 Acknowledgment 512References 51214 A Critical Review on Prospects and Challenges in “Conceptualization to Technology Transfer” for Nutrient Recovery from Municipal Wastewater 517Shubham Lanjewar, Birupakshya Mishra, Anupam Mukherjee, Aditi Mullick, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy14.1 Introduction 51814.2 Chemical Processes for Resources Recovery 52014.2.1 Chemical Precipitation 52114.2.1.1 Magnesium and Calcium – Phosphorous Precipitation 52114.2.1.2 Aluminum – Phosphorous Precipitation 52214.2.1.3 Ferric – Phosphorous Precipitation 52314.2.2 Adsorption and Ion-Exchange 52414.3 Biological Processes for Resources Recovery 52814.3.1 Anammox Process for Nutrients Recovery 52914.3.2 Algal Methods for Sewage Treatment and Nutrient Recovery 53014.3.2.1 Nutrients Recovery from Micro-Algae Growth 53014.3.2.2 Nutrients Recovery from Wetland Plants Growth 53314.4 Membrane-Based Hybrid Technologies for Nutrients, Energy, and Water Recovery 53414.4.1 Membrane Based Nutrients Recovery 53414.4.2 Bio Electrochemical Systems (BES) for Resources Recovery 53714.4.3 Nutrients Recovery via Osmotic Membrane Bioreactor 54414.4.4 Economics and Feasibility of Processes 54514.5 Conclusion 551Acknowledgements 551Disclosure 551References 55115 Sustainable Desalination: Future Scope in Indian Subcontinent 567Rudra Rath, Asim K. Ghosh and Anirban Roy15.1 Introduction 56715.2 Water Supply and Demand in India 56815.3 Current Status of Desalination in India 57115.4 Commercially Available Technologies 57215.4.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 57215.4.2 Electrodialysis (ED) 57315.4.3 Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI) 57415.4.4 Thermal Desalination 57415.5 Possible Technological Intervention 57615.5.1 Solar Desalination 57615.5.1.1 Solar Stills 57715.5.1.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Powered Desalination in India 57915.5.2 Wave Power Desalination 58015.5.3 Geothermal Desalination 58015.5.4 Low-Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) 58015.5.5 Membrane Distillation (MD) 58115.5.6 Forward Osmosis (FO) 58215.6 Challenges and Implementation Strategies for Sustainable Use of Desalination Technologies 583References 58416 Desalination: Thermodynamic Modeling and Energetics 591Shubham Lanjewar, Ridhish Kumar, Kunal Roy, Rudra Rath, Anupam Mukherjee and Anirban Roy16.1 Introduction 59216.2 Thermodynamics Modeling of Desalination 59316.2.1 Electrolyte Solutions 59416.2.2 Generalized Minimum Work of Separation 59616.2.2.1 Mass Basis 59716.2.2.2 Mole Basis 59816.3 Modeling of Major Thermal Desalination Techniques 59916.3.1 A General Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) Process Configuration for Desalination 60116.3.1.1 Steady State Process Model of a MED System 60116.3.1.2 Performance Parameters Analysis 60616.3.2 A General Process Configuration of Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Desalination 60716.3.2.1 Steady State Process Model of an MSF System 60816.3.3 A General Process Configuration of Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) Desalination 61216.3.3.1 Steady State Process Model of an MVC System 61316.4 Advantage of RO Above Other Mentioned Technologies 61516.4.1 Advantages of RO Process 61616.4.2 Energy Requirement in Desalination by an Evaporation Technique 61716.4.3 Energy Requirements for Desalination by Reversible RO Process 61716.4.4 Energy Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 61916.4.5 Economic Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 62016.5 Exergy Analysis of Reverse Osmosis 62316.5.1 General Exergy Analysis in Desalination and Its Necessity 62516.5.1.1 Exergy Efficiency and Its Improvement Potential Analysis 62816.5.2 A Case Study on Reverse Osmosis Based Desalination Unit Reporting Exergy Performance 63016.6 Conclusion 631Nomenclature 632References 636Index 643

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