Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollution, Volume 2

Nour Shafik El-Gendy, PhD, is a professor in the field of environmental sciences and nanobiotechnology. She is head manager of the Petroleum Biotechnology Lab; former acting- and vice-head of Process Design & Development Department, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute (EPRI); head of Technology Innovation Support Center (TISC) office; and vice-head of the Center of Excellence, MSA University. She is coordinator of the Water, Energy, and Environment Committee in the Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT); the former advisor for the Egyptian Minister of Environment; former coordinator of the Nanobiotechnology Program, Faculty of Nanotechnology for postgraduate studies, Cairo University; and vice coordinator of the Scientific Research Committee, National Council for Women (NCW) of Egypt. She has published 10 chapters, seven books, and 118 research papers, and supervised 27 MSc and PhD theses; and an editor and reviewer of 79 and 146 international journals, respectively. She was awarded from India the International Scientist Award 2021 for engineering, science, and medicine; and the Best Women Scientist Award 2021 from the College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University, USA; and is honored in many scientific forums. Her biography is included in Who’s Who in Science and Engineering.

• Preface xv1 Natural-Based Solutions for Bioremediation in Water Environment 1Pascal Breil, Marie-Noëlle Pons, Gilles Armani, Ranya Amer, Harrison Pienaar, Paul Oberholster and Philippe Namour1.1 Introduction 21.2 Basic Principles 31.2.1 Bioremediation 31.2.2 Self-Purification 31.2.2.1 Redox Processes 41.2.2.2 Photo-Degradation 51.3 Aquatic Bioremediation Structures 61.4 Constructed Porous Ramps 81.5 Bank Filtration for Water Treatment 101.6 Constructed Wetlands (CWs) 121.6.1 Water Flow 151.6.2 Aquatic Vegetation 161.7 Phytoremediation and Constructed Wetlands 171.7.1 Phytoremediation Techniques 171.7.2 Aquatic Phytobiome 181.7.3 Various Aquatic Plants Used 191.7.4 Emergent Aquatic Plants 201.7.5 Floating Leaved Aquatic Plants 201.7.6 Floating Aquatic Plants 201.7.7 Submerged Aquatic Plants 201.7.8 Mixture of Macrophytes and Microalgae 211.8 Phycoremediation 211.8.1 Carbon and Nutrients (N and P) Removal 211.8.2 Micropollutant Removal 231.9 Phytoremediation 231.9.1 Carbon and Nutrients (N and P) Removal 241.9.2 Metals Removal 251.9.3 Organic Micropollutant Removal 281.10 Improving Bioremediation Systems 311.10.1 Introduction 311.10.2 Floating Treatment Constructed Wetlands 331.10.3 Electro-Bioremediation 341.10.4 Bench Tests 351.10.5 Pilot Tests 361.10.6 Field Implementations 371.10.7 Maintenance of Aquatic Bioremediation Systems 381.10.8 Biomass Management 381.10.9 Sediment Management 391.11 Animal Biodiversity 401.11.1 Biodiversity Management 401.12 Nuisances 411.12.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHG) 411.12.2 Noxious Gases 421.12.3 Mosquitoes 431.12.4 Burrowing Animals 431.12.5 Algal Blooms 441.13 Wetland Monitoring 441.13.1 Monitoring Large-Scale CWs 441.13.2 Vegetation Monitoring 471.14 Wetland Modeling 501.14.1 Aquatic Plant Development Models 501.14.1.1 Submerged Aquatic Plants 501.14.1.2 Duckweed 511.14.2 Micropollutants Sorption 511.14.3 Organic Micropollutant Photolysis 521.14.4 Global CW Modeling 521.15 Social Acceptance 531.15.1 Yzeron Watershed Case Study (France) 541.15.2 South Africa Case Study 551.16 Ecohydrology, an Integrative NBS Implementation 571.16.1 Three Nested Logics for Innovative NBS Implementation 571.16.2 Ecohydrology on Small Watersheds 591.17 Conclusion 63Acknowledgement 65References 652 Removal of Heavy Metals From the Environment by Phytoremediation and Microbial Remediation 95Raluca-Maria Hlihor, Cozma Petronela and Maria Gavrilescu2.1 Introduction 962.2 Linking Heavy Metals Toxicity With Their Discharge and Removal From the Environmental   Compartments 982.3 Bio-Alternative Approaches Used for Heavy Metals Removal and/or Recovery From the Environment 1022.3.1 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation 1022.3.2 Phytoremediation 1102.3.2.1 Limitation and Challenges of Phytoremediation 1212.4 Interactions of Heavy Metals With Biological Systems and Toxicity Threats 1222.4.1 Some Expressions of Metal Toxicity in Living Organisms 1222.4.2 Heavy Metals, Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress 1242.4.3 Some Effects of Humans’ Exposure to Heavy Metals Toxicity 1242.4.4 Effects of Plants Exposure to Heavy Metals Toxicity 1252.4.5 Effects of Microbes Exposure to Heavy Metals Toxicity 1292.5 Synergistic Use of Plants and Bacteria for Cleaning Up the Environment Polluted With Heavy Metals 1312.6 Conclusions 135Acknowledgments 136References 136Website 1463 Bioremediation as a Sustainable Solution for Environmental Contamination by Petroleum Hydrocarbons 147Karuna K. Arjoon and James G. Speight3.1 Introduction 1473.2 Principles of Bioremediation 1523.3 Bioremediation and Biodegradation 1543.3.1 Natural Bioremediation Mechanism 1553.3.2 Traditional Bioremediation Methods 1553.3.3 Enhanced Bioremediation Treatment 1563.4 Mechanism of Biodegradation 1603.4.1 Chemical Reactions 1603.5 Bioremediation of Land Ecosystems 1623.5.1 Soil Evaluation 1683.5.1.1 Chemical Properties 1693.5.1.2 Biological Properties 1703.5.1.3 Effect of Temperature 1723.5.1.4 Effect of pH 1733.5.1.5 Effect of Salinity 1743.6 Bioremediation of Water Ecosystems 1753.6.1 Biodegradation 1773.6.2 Bioremediation 1773.6.2.1 Temperature 1783.6.2.2 Effect of Oxygen 1783.6.2.3 Nutrients 1783.6.2.4 Effect of Petroleum Characteristics 1793.6.2.5 Effect of Prior Exposure 1793.6.2.6 Effect of Dispersants 1793.6.2.7 Effect of Flowing Water 1793.6.2.8 Effect of Deep-Sea Environments 1803.7 Challenges and Opportunities 180References 1824 Pollution Protection Using Novel Membrane Catalytic Reactors 189Said. S. E. H. Elnashaie and Elham ElzanatiNomenclatures 190Greek Letters 193Abbreviations 1934.1 Introduction 1944.2 Autothermal Systems 1954.2.1 Dehydrogenation (Dehydro) and Hydrogenation (Hydro) Reactions 1954.2.2 Dehydrogenation (Dehydro) Definition 1964.2.3 Dehydro Reaction and the Generated Hydrogen Consumption 1964.2.4 Endothermic (Endo) Dehydro Coupled With Exothermic (Exo) Reactions 1974.3 The Thermal Coupling and the Autothermal (Auto) Reactors 1994.3.1 Recuperative Coupling Reactor 1994.3.1.1 Recuperative Coupling Reactors Design 2004.3.1.2 Examples of Recuperative Reactions Coupling 2014.3.2 Regenerative Coupling Reactor 2014.3.3 Direct Coupling Reactor 2014.4 The Membrane Reactor 2094.5 Development Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 2154.5.1 Gas-to-Liquid Fuel 2164.5.2 High-Temperature Fisher-Tropsch (HTFT) Processes 2164.6 HTFT Reactor Type and Developments 2174.6.1 Fixed-Bed Reactor 2194.6.2 Fluidized-Bed Reactor 2194.6.2.1 The Fluidization Principle 2194.6.2.2 Classification of Fluidized Reactor 2194.6.3 Bubble Column Reactors 2214.6.4 Dual-Type Membrane Reactor 2224.7 Membrane Reactors Classification 2274.8 Rate Expressions 2284.8.1 Modeling of the Dehydro Process in Membrane Reactor 2304.9 Industrial Applications 2324.9.1 Heterogeneous Catalytic Gas-Phase Reactions 2324.9.1.1 Catalytic Cracking 2324.9.1.2 Synthesis of Acrylonitrile 2324.9.1.3 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 2334.9.1.4 Other Processes 2334.9.2 Homogeneous Gas-Phase Reactions 2334.9.3 Gas-Solid Reactions 2334.9.4 Applications in Biotechnology 2344.10 Catalytic Membrane Reactors Coupling Dehydro of EB to S With Hydro NB to A as a Case Study 2344.10.1 Introduction 2354.10.2 Reactor Configuration 2374.10.3 Reactor Model 2404.11 Case Study of Use the Membranes in Fischer-Tropsch Reactors 2464.11.1 Introduction 2464.11.2 Use of Semi-Permeable Membranes in FTS 2474.11.3 Water-Selective Semi-Permeable Membranes for Water Removal 2484.11.4 The Use of Non-Selective Porous Membranes in FTS 2494.11.4.1 Concept of the Plug-Through Contactor Membranes Using the Permeable Composite Monolith (PCM) 2494.11.4.2 Preparation of PCM, the Possibility to Control the Porous Structure Parameters at the Preparation Stage 2514.11.5 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis in a PCM Membrane Reactor 2524.11.5.1 Dry Mode of Operation 2524.11.5.2 Flooded Mode of Operation, the Effect of the Pore Structure and Membrane Geometry on the Magnitude of the Mass-Transfer Constrains 2534.12 Biofuel and Sustainability 2534.13 Conclusions 254References 2565 Removal of Microbial Contaminants From Polluted Water Using Combined Biosand Filters Techniques 265Lizzy Aluoch Mwamburi5.1 Introduction 2665.2 Slow Sand Filtration 2665.2.1 Sand Filters and Removal of Pollutants 2685.2.1.1 Effect of Sand Grain Size on Removal of Pollutants 2685.2.1.2 Effect of Sand Bed Depth on Removal of Pollutants 2705.2.1.3 Effect of Retention Time on Removal of Pollutants 2715.3 Wetlands 2725.3.1 Natural Wetlands 2725.3.2 Constructed Wetlands 2735.3.2.1 Types of Macrophytes in Constructed Wetlands 2755.3.2.2 Constructed Wetlands and Removal of Pollutants 2765.3.2.3 Combined Macrophyte Species in Constructed Wetlands 2785.3.2.4 Advantages of Constructed Wetlands 2805.4 Combination of Sand Filters With Constructed Wetlands Systems 2815.5 Conclusions 282References 2826 Biosurfactants: Promising Biomolecules for Environmental Cleanup 293Geeta Rawat, Renu Choudhary, Vijay Kumar and Vivek Kumar6.1 Introduction 2946.2 Biosurfactants Types 2956.3 Biosurfactants Mechanism of Remediation 2956.4 Bioremediation of Petro-Hydrocarbon Contaminants 2966.5 Microbial Enhance Oil Recovery (MEOR) 2996.5.1 Mechanism of MEOR 3006.6 Biosurfactants and Agro-Ecosystem Pollutants 3026.7 Heavy Metals Removal 3066.8 Biosurfactants for Sustainability 3086.8.1 Low-Cost Substrates 3086.9 Production Processes 3096.10 Concluding Remarks 3096.11 Future Aspects 310References 3117 Metal Hyperaccumulation in Plants: Phytotechnologies 321Rachna Chandra, B. Anjan Kumar Prusty and P. A. Azeez7.1 Introduction 3227.2 Phytotechnologies and Terminologies 3267.2.1 Phytoaccumulation/Phytoextraction 3267.2.2 Rhizofiltration 3317.2.3 Phytovolatilization 3327.2.4 Rhizodegradation 3337.2.5 Phytodegradation/Phytotransformation 3347.2.6 Phytostabilization 3357.3 Biological Mechanisms 3367.4 Present Gaps and Prospects 3407.5 Conclusion 343Acknowledgements 344References 3448 Microbial Remediation Approaches for PAH Degradation 355KavitaVerma and Vartika Mathur8.1 Introduction 3568.2 Biogeochemical Properties and Sources of PAH 3578.3 Fate of PAH 3638.4 PAH: Soil and Air Pollution 3648.5 Harmful Effects of PAH 3648.6 Microbe Assisted Biodegradation 3668.6.1 Bacterial Assisted PAH Degradation 3668.6.2 Mechanism 3678.6.3 Mycoremediation 3818.6.3.1 Mechanism 3828.6.4 Algae Assisted PAH Degradation 3838.7 Genes and Enzymes Involved in Microbial Degradation 3848.8 Factors Affecting Microbial Biodegradation 3848.9 Bioremediation and Genetic Engineering 3858.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 386References 3869 Biomorphic Synthesis of Nanosized Zinc Oxide for Water Purification 401Waleed I.M. El-Azab and Hager R. Ali9.1 Introduction 4019.2 Properties of ZnO NPs 4049.2.1 Structure and Lattice Parameters of ZnO 4049.2.2 Mechanical Properties 4049.2.3 Electronic Properties 4059.2.4 Optical Properties 4059.3 Protocol for the Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs 4059.3.1 Natural Extract–Based ZnO Nanostructure 4059.3.2 Microorganism-Based ZnO Nanostructures 4119.3.3 Solvent System‐Based “Green” Synthesis 4129.4 Factors Affecting the Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles 4139.4.1 pH 4149.4.2 Temperature 4149.4.3 Influence of the Reactant 4149.4.4 Effect of Metabolites 4149.5 Applications of Biologically Synthesized NPs 4159.5.1 Antibacterial Effect of ZnO-NPs 4159.5.2 Photocatalytic Activity 4179.5.3 ZnO NPs and ROS Production 4189.6 Mechanism of Biogenic Synthesis of ZnO NPs 4199.7 Cytotoxicity of Nanoparticles 4219.8 Conclusions and Future Outlook 421References 42210 Pollution Dynamics of Urban Catchments 433Eugine Makaya10.1 Introduction 43410.1.1 Environmental Protection for Sustainable Development 43410.1.2 Sustainability in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 43510.1.3 Sustainability in Organic Solid Waste Management 43710.2 Sustainability in Domestic Wastewater Treatment 43810.2.1 Centralized Sanitation and Sustainability 43810.2.2 Decentralized Sanitation and Sustainability 43810.2.3 Merits of Centralized Over Decentralized Sanitation 43910.3 Source Area Pollutant Generation Processes 44110.3.1 Automotive Activities 44110.3.2 Atmospheric Depositions 44210.4 Polluting Activities 44410.4.1 Industrial 44410.5 Characterization of Urban Pollutants 44510.5.1 Air Pollution Measurements Used in Estimating Annual Average Concentrations 44510.5.2 Comparative Quantification of Health Risks 44610.6 The Fate and Transport of Urban Pollutants 44710.7 Spatial Distribution of Urbans Pollutants 44910.7.1 Tools for Monitoring the Spatial Distribution 44910.7.1.1 Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing 44910.7.1.2 Shetran Modeling 45010.8 Case Study: City of Harare 45210.9 Conclusions, Challenges, Opportunities, and/ or Future Aspects 454References 45411 Bioupgrading of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Fractions 457Karuna K. Arjoon and James G. Speight11.1 Introduction 45711.2 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery 45911.3 Biotransformation of Heavy Crude Oil 46111.4 Biorefining of Crude Oil 47111.4.1 Biodesulfurization 47111.4.2 Biodenitrogenation 48111.4.3 Biodemetallization 48511.5 The Future of Biotechnology in the Refinery 489References 49112 Recyclable Porous Adsorbents as Environmentally Approach for Greenhouse Gas Capture 503Nour F. Attia, Sally E. A. Elashery, Ahmed A. Galhoum, Hyunchul Oh and Ibrahim El T. El Sayed12.1 Introduction 50412.2 Classification of Porous Materials 50612.3 Recyclability Routes of Biomass to Porous Carbons 50812.4 Activation Routes Processes 50912.4.1 Physical Activation 50912.4.2 Chemical Activation 51012.5 Co 2 Capture in Recyclable Porous Carbon Materials 51112.6 Co 2 Capture Mechanism in Porous Carbons 51912.7 Prospects and Outlooks 52012.8 Conclusion 521Acknowledgements 521References 521About the Editor 533Index 535

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