Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollution, Volume 1

Nour Shafik El-Gendy, PhD, is a professor in the field of petroleum and environmental biotechnology, advisor for the Egyptian Minster of Environment, vice head for Department of Process Design & Development and former head manager of Petroleum Biotechnology Lab, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute (EPRI). She is an editor, reviewer, and contributor to many scientific journals, and she has numerous awards, papers, and presentations to her credit, including being the author or co-author of several books. She is vice coordinator of the Scientific Research Committee, National Council for Women (NCW) of Egypt and member in the Egyptian Young Academy of Sciences (EYAS). El-Gendy is an expert in the field of environmental pollution, wastewater treatment, biofuel, petroleum upgrading, green chemistry, nanobiotechnology, recycling of wastes and biocorrosion. She has extensive research, teaching, and lecturing experience, and she is the co-editor of the book, Biodesulfurization in Petroleum Refining, also available from Wiley-Scrivener.

• Preface xv1 An Overview of Electro-Fermentation as a Platform for Future Biorefineries 1Tae Hyun Chung and Bipro Ranjan Dhar1.1 Introduction 21.2 Fundamental Mechanisms 51.3 Value-Added Products from Electro-Fermentation 71.3.1 Carboxylates 111.3.1.1 Short-Chain Carboxylates 111.3.1.2 Medium-Chain Carboxylates 131.3.2 Bioethanol 141.3.3 Bio-Butanol 161.3.4 Microalgae Derived Lipids 181.3.5 Acetoin 211.3.6 Biopolymer 231.3.7 L-lysine 251.3.8 1,3-propanediol 271.4 Challenges and Future Outlook 291.5 Acknowledgements 30References 302 Biodiesel Sustainability: Challenges and Perspectives 41Hussein N. Nassar, Abdallah R. Ismail and Nour Sh. El-GendyAbbreviations 422.1 Introduction 442.2 Biodiesel Production 482.3 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Production Process 512.3.1 The Type of Feedstock 512.3.2 The Type of Alcohol 542.3.3 Effect of Alcohol to Oil Molar Ratio 552.3.4 Catalyst Concentration 552.3.5 Catalysts Type 562.3.5.1 Lipases 562.3.5.2 Acid Catalysts 582.3.5.3 Alkaline Catalysts 632.3.6 Effect of Reaction Temperature 732.3.7 Effect of Reaction Time 742.3.8 Mixing Efficiency 752.3.9 Effect of pH 762.4 Transesterification Mechanisms 762.4.1 Homogeneous Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 762.4.2 Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 772.4.3 CaO-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 772.4.4 Other Calcium Derived-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 802.5 Production of Biodiesel Using Heterogeneous Catalyst Prepared from Natural Sources 812.6 Challenges and Perspectives 94References 993 Multidisciplinary Sides of Environmental Engineering and Sustainability 123Said S. E. H. Elnashaie3.1 Introduction 1243.2 System Theory and Integrated System Approach 1263.2.1 System Theory 1263.2.2 The State of the System and State Variables 1283.2.3 Input Variables (Parameters) 1283.2.4 Design Variables (Parameters) 1283.2.5 Physico-Chemical Variables (Parameters) 1283.2.6 Boundaries of System 1293.2.6.1 Isolated System 1293.2.6.2 Closed System 1293.2.6.3 Open System 1293.2.7 Steady, Unsteady States and Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Systems 1303.3 Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development Engineering and Environmental Engineering 1303.3.1 Bio-Fuels and Integrated Bio-Refineries 1323.3.2 Integrated System Approach 1373.4 Advanced Multi-Disciplinary Sustainable Engineering Education 1393.4.1 Bio-Fuels 1433.4.1.1 Bio-Hydrogen 1433.4.1.2 Bio-Diesel 1433.4.1.3 Bio-Ethanol 1443.4.2 Bio-Products 1453.4.3 Integrated Bio-Refineries 1463.4.4 Development of Novel Technologies 1473.4.5 Economics of Bio-Fuels and Bio-Products 1473.4.6 Nano-Technology (NT) 1483.4.7 Non-Linear Dynamics (NLDs), Bifurcation (B), Chaos (C) and Complexity (COMP) 1483.4.8 Sustainable Development (SD), Sustainable Development Engineering (SDE), System Theory (ST) and Integrated System Approach (ISA) 1493.4.9 Novel Education 1493.4.10 New Journal 1503.5 Novel Designs for Auto-Thermal Behavior Towards Sustainability 1523.5.1 Integrated System Approach Classification 1533.6 Conclusions 156References 1564 Biofuels 163Karuna K. Arjoon and James G. Speight4.1 Introduction 1634.2 Composition 1654.3 Classification of Biofuels 1664.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels 1664.3.1.1 Sugars and Starch 1664.3.1.2 Cellulose 1684.3.1.3 Lignin 1684.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 1694.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 1694.4 Examples of Biofuels 1704.4.1 Biodiesel 1704.4.2 Bio-Alcohols 1744.4.3 Bioethers 1764.4.4 Biogas 1774.4.5 Bio-Oil 1794.4.6 Synthesis Gas 1804.5 Property Variations with Source 1814.6 Properties Compared to Fuels from Crude Oil Tar Sand Bitumen, Coal and Oil Shale 1854.7 Fuel Specifications and Performance 1894.8 Conclusion 195References 1975 Sustainable Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil into Biofuels and Green Chemicals: Recent Trends, Opportunities and Challenges 199Omar Aboelazayem and Ranim Alayoubi5.1 Introduction 2005.2 Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) 2015.3 Biofuels from WCO 2035.3.1 Biodiesel 2035.3.2 Biojet Fuel 2065.3.2.1 Hydro-Treatment Process 2085.3.2.2 Cracking and Isomerisation Processes 2095.4 Green Chemicals from WCO 2105.4.1 Asphalt Rejuvenator 2115.4.2 Plasticizers 2125.4.3 Polyurethane Foam 2145.4.4 Bio-Lubricants 2155.4.5 Surfactants 2155.5 Challenges and Future Work 2165.6 Conclusion 217References 2186 Waste Valorization: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Routes 229Muhammad Faheem, Muhammad Azher Hassan, Tariq Mehmood, Sarfraz Hashim and Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf6.1 Background 2306.2 Land Biomass vs. Oceanic Biomass 2336.3 Waste Management 2336.4 Waste Valorization for Adsorbents Development 2346.5 Waste Valorization for Catalysts Preparations 2376.6 Bio-Based Waste Valorization for Bio-Fuel and Bio-Fertilizer Production 2406.6.1 Biomass Briquetting: (Bio-Fuel) 2406.6.2 Composting: (Bio-Fertilizer) 2416.6.3 Anaerobic Digestion: (Bio-Fuel) 2436.7 Biochemical Mechanism Involved in Anaerobic Digestion System 2446.7.1 Hydrolysis 2446.7.2 Acidogenesis 2446.7.3 Acetogenesis 2456.7.4 Methanogenesis 2456.8 Challenges and Recent Advances in Anaerobic Digestion 2456.9 Bio-Based Waste and Bioeconomy Perspective 2466.10 Conclusion 248References 2487 Electrocoagulation Process in the Treatment of Landfill Leachate 257Mohd Azhar Abd Hamid, Hamidi Abdul Aziz and Mohd Suffian Yusoff7.1 Introduction 2587.2 Decomposition of Solid Waste 2597.3 Landfill Leachate Properties 2627.3.1 Organic Matter 2627.3.2 Inorganic Substances 2637.3.3 Heavy Metals 2637.3.4 Xenobiotic Organics 2647.4 Characteristics of Landfill Leachate 2647.5 Electrocoagulation Process 2677.5.1 Fundamentals of Electrocoagulation Process 2677.5.2 Mechanism of Electrocoagulation Process 2697.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 2727.6 Key Parameters of Electrocoagulation Process 2727.6.1 Electrodes Material 2727.6.2 Electrodes Arrangement 2747.6.3 Electrode Spacing 2757.6.4 Current Density 2767.6.5 Electrolysis Time 2777.6.6 Initial pH 2787.6.7 Agitation Speed 2797.6.8 Electrolyte Conductivity 2807.7 Operating Mode 2817.8 Economic Analysis 2837.9 Case Study: Removal of the Organic Pollutant of Colour in Natural Saline Leachate from Pulau Burung Landfill Site 2847.9.1 Pulau Burung Landfill Site 2857.9.2 Experimental Design 2867.9.3 Results and Discussion 2877.10 Gaps in Current Knowledge 2887.11 Conclusion and Future Prospect 289References 2908 Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollutants from Solid Waste Landfills 305Salem S. Abu Amr, Mohammed J.K. Bashir, Sohaib K. M. Abujayyab and Waseem Ahmad8.1 Introduction 3068.2 Domestic Solid Waste and Its Critical Environmental Issues 3068.3 Landfill Leachate Characterization and Its Impact on the Environment 3078.4 Effect of Landfills on Air Quality 3118.5 Effect of Unsuitable Location of Landfill on Environment and Community 3158.6 Recent Sustainable Technologies for Leachate Treatment 3188.6.1 Effects of AOPs on Leachate Biodegradability 3208.6.2 Case Study and Proposed Data for Leachate Treatment Plant Using AOPs 3228.7 Sustainable Solutions for Gas Emission 3248.8 Consideration for Selection of Sustainable Locations for Landfills 3288.9 Conclusion 331References 3329 Progress on Ionic Liquid Pre-Treatment for Lignocellulosic Biomass Valorization into Biofuels and Bio-Products 343Ranim Alayoubi and Omar Aboelazayem9.1 Introduction 3449.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Biofuels and Bio-Products 3459.2.1 Cellulose 3469.2.2 Hemicellulose 3479.2.3 Lignin 3489.3 Pre-Treatment Technologies for Lignocellulosic Biomass 3499.4 Ionic Liquids for Lignocellulosic Biomass Pre-Treatment: Characteristics and Properties 3549.5 Insights into Pre-Treatment Performance of Ionic Liquids 3579.5.1 Interactions of Ionic Liquids with Lignocellulose 3579.5.2 Effect of the Ionic Liquid Pre-Treatment on the Recovered Biomass 3599.5.3 Impact of Ionic Liquids on the Biological Tools 3619.6 Concluding Remarks: Challenges Facing the Development of Ionic Liquids Use at Large Scale and Future Directions 364References 36510 Septage Characterization and Sustainable Fecal Sludge Management in Rural Nablus – Palestine 375A. Rasem Hasan,Mohammed A. Hussein, Hanan A. Jafar and Amjad I.A. HusseinList of Abbreviations 37610.1 Introduction 37710.1.1 Background 37710.1.2 What is Fecal Sludge? 37810.1.3 Legal Considerations 37810.1.4 Study Area 37910.2 Septage Characteristics 38110.2.1 Introduction 38110.2.2 General Background of Septage Characterization 38110.2.3 General Treatment of Fecal Sludge 38510.3 Study Methodology 38810.3.1 General 38810.3.2 Research Methodology and Methods of Laboratory Analysis 38810.3.2.1 Data Collection 38810.3.2.2 Sampling and Storage 38810.3.2.3 Sampling of Septage 38910.3.2.4 Sampling of Stools and Urine 39010.3.2.5 Storage of Samples 39010.3.3 Characterization of Fecal Sludge (FS) 39010.3.4 Statistical Analysis of Data on Characterization of FS 39010.4 Septage Pre-Treatment Process 39110.4.1 General Treatment Options 39110.4.2 Selection of Treatment Options 39110.4.3 Septage Quality Determination 39210.4.4 Software Selection 39210.4.4.1 Modeling by GPS-X 7.0 39210.4.5 End-Use and Disposal 39310.5 Results and Discussion 39310.5.1 Measured Parameters for Fecal Sludge 39310.5.1.1 Septage Characteristics 39310.5.2 Stools Characteristics 39810.5.3 Urine Characteristics 39810.5.4 Specific Parameters in Details 39810.5.4.1 pH and EC 39810.5.4.2 Turbidity 39810.5.4.3 COD/BOD5 40110.5.4.4 Total Nitrogen and Ammonia 40110.5.4.5 TS, TDS, and TSS 40210.5.4.6 VS, VDS, and VSS 40210.5.4.7 PO4 -P and PO4 -T 40310.5.4.8 Fat and Grease 40310.5.4.9 Alkalinity 40410.5.4.10 TC and FC 40410.6 Pre-Treatment of the Fecal Sludge – Results and Discussions 40410.6.1 Quantification of Domestic Septage 40410.6.2 Design Septage Characteristics 40510.6.2.1 Untreated Septage Characteristics 40510.6.2.2 Treated Septage Characteristics 40610.6.3 Software Design 40610.6.3.1 Treatment Plant Modeling 40610.6.3.2 Optimizing the Appropriate Model 40810.7 Treatment Plant Estimated Cost Breakdown 40810.8 Conclusion 41010.9 Recommendations 412References 41311 Lipase Catalyzed Reactions: A Promising Approach for Clean Synthesis of Oleochemicals 417Ahmad Mustafa11.1 Introduction to Oleochemicals Industry 41811.2 Sources of Lipases 42011.2.1 Bacterial Lipases 42011.2.2 Fungal Lipases 42211.2.3 Plant Lipases 42211.2.4 Animal Lipases 42211.3 Application of Lipases 42211.3.1 Monoglycerides Production 42311.3.2 Oil/Fats Glycerolysis (Chemically Catalyzed) 42311.3.3 Oil/Fats Glycerolysis (Enzymatically Catalyzed) 42511.3.4 Biodiesel Production 42911.4 Lipase Catalyzed Production of Biodiesel 43011.4.1 Production of Biodiesel from Oil Extracted from Spent Bleaching Earth (SBE) 43111.5 Esterification of Fatty Acids with Glycerol 43311.5.1 Chemically Catalyzed Esterification 43311.5.2 Lipase Catalyzed Production of Monoglycerides 43511.6 Interesterification 43511.6.1 Chemical Interesterification 43811.6.2 Enzymatic Interesterification 43811.7 Environmental Benefits of Enzymatic Process Against Chemical Process 43911.8 Conclusion 440References 44112 Seaweeds for Sustainable Development 449Nermin Adel El Semary12.1 Introduction 44912.2 Types of Seaweeds 45112.2.1 Green Algae 45112.2.2 Red Algae 45112.2.3 Brown Algae 45212.3 Bioremediation 45212.3.1 Pollution 45212.3.2 Bioremediation of Polluted Water 45212.3.3 Algal Bioremediation of Eutrophic Water 45612.4 Seaweeds in Nutrition 45712.4.1 Human Nutrition 45712.4.2 Animal Feed and Feed Additive 45712.5 Seaweeds as a Source of Pharmaceutics 45812.5.1 Pharmaceutics from Green Algae 45812.5.2 Pharamaceutics from Brown Algae 45812.5.3 Pharmaceutics from Red Algae 45812.6 Seaweeds Hydrocolloids and Biopolymers 45912.6.1 Agar 45912.6.2 Carrageenans 45912.6.3 Alginates (Alginic Acid) 46012.7 Seaweeds and Bioenergy 46012.8 Seaweeds as Biofertilizers 46112.9 Seaweeds as Ecological Player in Sulfur Geocycle 46212.10 Culturing Seaweeds in the Marine Habitat (Algal Maricultures) 46312.10.1 Mariculture Establishment 46412.10.1.1 Single Culture 46412.10.1.2 Repeated Culture 46412.10.1.3 Multiple Cultures 46412.10.2 Cultured Seaweed Harvest 46412.10.3 Processes Following the Algae Harvest 46512.11 Conclusion 46512.12 Recommendations 46612.13 References 466About the Editor 471Index 473