Sustainable Energy Storage in the Scope of Circular Economy

Carlos Miguel Costa, Research, Centre of Physics, University of Minho, Portugal. Renato Gonçalves, Research, Centre of Chemistry, University of Minho, Portugal. Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez, Research Professor and Scientific Director, BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, Spain.

• List of Contributors xiPreface xvPart I Introduction 11 The Central Role of Energy in the Scope of Circular Economy and Sustainable Approaches in Energy Generation and Storage 3Renato Gonçalves, Arkaitz Fidalgo-Marijuan, Carlos Miguel Costa, and Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez1.1 Introduction 31.2 Circular Economy and the Central Role of Energy 51.3 The Central Role of Energy in the Scope of Sustainability 81.3.1 Energy Generation 81.3.2 Energy Storage 101.4 Conclusions and Outlook 11Acknowledgments 12References 132 Reactive Metals as Energy Storage and Carrier Media 17Hüseyin Ersoy, Manuel Baumann, Marcel Weil, Linda Barelli, and Stefano Passerini2.1 Introduction 172.2 Significance of a Circular Metal Economy for the Energy Transition 182.3 Energy Carrier Properties of Reactive Metals 202.4 Potential Reactive Metal Energy Carrier and Storage Applications 222.4.1 Metals as Thermal Energy Carriers 222.4.2 Combustible Metal Fuels, and Hydrogen Carriers 262.4.3 Reactive Metal- Based Electrochemical Energy Storage 302.5 Economic and Environmental Implications of Reactive Metals 332.6 Conclusion and Outlook 36Aknowledgements 37References 37Part II Sustainable Materials for Batteries and Supercapacitors 433 Lithium-Ion Batteries: Electrodes, Separators, and Solid Polymer Electrolytes 45Manuel Salado, Renato Gonçalves, Carlos Miguel Costa, and Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez3.1 Introduction 453.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries 513.2.1 Electrodes 513.2.2 Separator 533.2.3 Electrolyte 543.3 Sustainable Materials for Li- Ion Batteries 563.3.1 Electrodes 563.3.2 Separator 593.3.3 Solid Polymer Electrolytes 613.4 Conclusions and Outlook 61Acknowledgments 62References 624 Solid Batteries Chemistries Beyond Lithium 69Mary York, Karl Larson, Kailot C. Harris, Eric Carmona, Paul Albertus, Rosy Sharma, Malachi Noked, Ela Strauss, Heftsi Ragones, and Diana Golodnitsky4.1 Introduction 694.2 Brief Overview of Solid Alkali- Ion and Alkaline- Earth- Ion Electrolytes 724.2.1 Types of Solid Electrolytes 724.2.2 Insights and Developments Regarding Metal Dendrites in Solid Electrolyte Systems 754.2.2.1 Metal Growth Through Na Ceramic Solid Electrolytes 774.3 Solid-State Sodium-Ion Batteries 794.3.1 Solid Electrolytes for Sodium Batteries 804.3.2 Anode Materials for Solid-State Sodium Batteries 824.3.3 Cathode Materials for Solid-State Sodium Batteries 844.3.4 Solid- State Sodium Battery, Full-Cell Results 864.4 Solid- State Potassium-Ion Batteries 884.4.1 Solid Electrolytes for Potassium Batteries 894.4.2 Anode Materials for Solid-State Potassium Batteries 904.4.3 Cathode Materials and Electrochemical Performance of Solid- State Potassium Batteries 914.5 Solid- State Magnesium-Ion Batteries 944.5.1 Solid Electrolytes for Magnesium-Ion Batteries 944.5.2 Anode Materials for Solid-State Magnesium Batteries 1004.5.3 Cathode Materials and Electrochemical Performance of Magnesium Batteries 1014.6 Specific Challenges and Future Perspectives 104References 1065 A Rationale for the Development of Sustainable Biodegradable Batteries 123Marina Navarro-Segarra and Juan P. Esquivel5.1 Challenges for Powering a Digital Society 1235.2 State of the Art of Portable Batteries with a Disruptive End of Life 1265.3 How to Design a Truly Sustainable Battery? 1305.3.1 Portable Battery Development in a Doughnut Model 1325.3.1.1 Materials 1345.3.1.2 Fabrication and Distribution 1345.3.1.3 Application 1355.3.1.4 End of Life 1365.4 Global Trends and Opportunities 137Acknowledgments 138Notes 138References 1396 Recent Advances of Sustainable Electrode Materials for Supercapacitor Devices 145Shilpi Sengupta and Manab Kundu6.1 Introduction 1456.2 Charge Storage Mechanism 1486.2.1 Electric Double-Layer Capacitor 1496.2.1.1 Activated Carbon 1506.2.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes 1506.2.1.3 Graphene 1516.2.1.4 Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 1516.2.2 Pseudocapacitor 1536.2.2.1 Transition Metal Hydroxides 1536.2.2.2 Transition Metal Oxides 1546.2.2.3 Transition Metal Sulfides 1546.2.2.4 Transition Metal Diselenides 1556.3 Conclusion 156References 156Part III Sustainable Approaches for Fuel Cells 1597 Sustainable Materials for Fuel Cell Devices 161Weidong He, Shijie Zhong, Yunfa Dong, and Qun li7.1 Introduction 1617.2 Catalysts 1617.2.1 Introduction 1617.2.2 PGM-Based Catalysts 1637.2.2.1 Carbon-Based Supported PGM Catalysts 1637.2.2.2 Oxide-Based Supported PGM-Based Catalysts 1667.2.2.3 Pt Alloy Catalysts 1667.2.2.4 Pt Core–Shell Structure Catalysts 1667.2.3 PGM-Free Catalysts 1667.2.3.1 Metal-Free Catalysts 1677.2.3.2 Metal–Nitrogen–Carbon Catalysts 1687.3 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) 1697.3.1 PFSA and Their Composite Membranes 1707.3.2 SHPs and Their Composite Membranes 1747.3.3 PBI/H3PO4 Membrane 1757.4 The Other Components 1767.4.1 Gas Diffusion Layer (GDL) 1767.4.2 Bipolar Plate (BP) 1777.4.3 Current Collector 1777.4.4 Sealing Material (SM) 178References 1798 Recent Advances in Microbial Fuel Cells for Sustainable Energy 183Muhammad R. Sulaiman and Ram K. Gupta8.1 Introduction 1838.1.1 Introduction to Microbial Fuel Cells 1848.1.2 Electron Transfer Mechanism 1848.1.3 MFC Substrate 1878.1.4 Electrode Materials 1878.2 Materials for Anode 1878.2.1 Conventional Carbonaceous Materials 1888.2.2 Metal and Metal Oxide-Based Anode for MFC 1918.2.3 Natural Waste-Based Anode Material for MFC 1918.2.4 Modification Approaches for MFC Anode 1948.3 Materials for Cathode 1968.3.1 Pt-Based Cathode 1968.3.2 Nonprecious Metal Cathode 1968.3.3 Biocathodes 1978.3.4 Metal-Free Cathode 1978.4 Conclusion 197References 198Part IV Sustainable Energy Storage Devices and Device Design 2039 Multifunctional Sustainable Materials for Energy Storage 205Michael Thielke and Ana J. Sobrido9.1 Redox Flow Batteries as Alternative Energy Storage Technology for Grid-Scale and Off-Grid Applications 2059.1.1 Traditional Carbon Electrodes in Redox Flow Batteries 2089.1.2 Processing of Biomass Into Electroactive Materials 2139.1.3 Examples of Biomass-Derived Electrodes for Redox Flow Batteries 213References 22110 Sustainable Energy Storage Devices and Device Design for Sensors and Actuators Applications 225 – WITHDRAWNReeya Agarwal, Sangeeta Singh, and Ahmed E. Shalan10.1 Introduction of Sustainable Energy Storage Devices 22510.2 Literature Survey 22910.3 Need for the Sustainable Energy Storage Devices 23610.3.1 Reduce First 23610.3.2 Electricity Generation and Health 23710.3.2.1 The Economic Benefits of Using Renewable Energy Sources are Numerous 23710.3.2.2 Protection of the Energy Supply 23710.3.2.3 Increasing the Economy 23810.3.2.4 Stability of the Currency 23810.3.2.5 Electricity and the Environment 23810.3.3 Energy Storing Approaches 23910.3.4 Storage Systems for Large Amounts of Energy 23910.3.4.1 Electrochemical Storage 23910.3.4.2 Thermochemical Storage 24110.3.4.3 Thermochemical Energy Storage (TCES): Physical Fundamentals 24210.3.4.4 Thermal Energy Storage 24310.3.4.5 Chemical and Hydrogen Energy Storage 24310.4 Sustainable and Ecofriendly Energy Storage 24610.4.1 Longer Charges 24810.4.2 Safer Batteries 24910.4.3 Storing Sunlight as Heat 24910.4.4 Advanced Renewable Fuels 25010.5 Different Energy Storage Mechanisms 25010.5.1 Hydroelectricity 25010.5.2 Hydroelectric Power Was Generated and Then Transferred 25210.5.3 A Compressor That Produces Compressed Air 25210.5.4 Flywheel 25310.5.5 Gravitational Pull of a Massive Object 25310.5.6 Thermal 25310.5.7 Thermal Heat Sensitiveness 25410.5.8 Latent Heat Thermal (LHTES) 25410.5.9 Charging System for the Carnot Battery 25410.5.10 Lithium-Ion Battery 25410.5.11 Supercapacitor 25410.5.12 Chemical 25510.5.13 Hydrogen 25510.5.14 Electrochemical 25510.5.15 Methane 25610.5.16 Biofuels 25710.5.17 Aluminum 25710.5.18 Ways Utilizing Electricity 25710.5.19 Magnetic Materials with Superconductivity 25710.6 Different Novel 2D Materials for Energy Storage 25810.6.1 2D Materials for Energy Storage Devices 26010.6.2 Challenges Facing 2D Energy Technology 26110.7 Nature-Inspired Materials for Sensing and Energy Storage Applications 26210.7.1 Sensing and Energy Storage Artificial Nano and Microstructures 26210.7.2 Bioinspired Hierarchical Nanofibrous Materials 26310.7.3 Nature-Inspired Polymer Nanocomposites 26410.7.4 Skin-Inspired Hierarchical Polymer Materials 26510.7.5 Neuron-Inspired Network Materials 26710.7.6 Tunable Energy Storage Materials 26710.7.7 Tunable Sensing Materials 27010.7.8 Bioinspired Batteries 27310.7.9 Bioinspired Energy Storage Devices 27410.8 Conclusions 276References 27611 Sustainable Energy Storage Devices and Device Design for in the Scope of Internet of Things 291Vitor Correia, Carlos Miguel Costa, and Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez11.1 Introduction 29111.2 New Materials and Manufacturing Methods for Batteries 29611.3 New Materials and Manufacturing Methods for Supercapacitors 29911.4 New Designs to Optimize the Management and Energy Needs of the Devices 30111.5 Recycling Solutions for Energy Storage Systems 30211.6 Conclusions 302Acknowledgments 303References 303Part V Waste Prevention and Recycling 30712 Waste Prevention for Energy Storage Devices Based on Second-Life Use of Lithium-Ion Batteries 309Oliver Pohl, Gavin Collis, Peter Mahon, and Thomas Rüther12.1 Introduction 30912.1.1 Benefits of Second- Life 31212.1.2 Economic Benefits 31312.1.3 Environmental Benefits 31512.2 Challenges 31512.2.1 Chemical Challenges 31512.2.2 Methods of Investigating Lithium-Ion Battery State of Health 31812.2.2.1 Coulomb Counting 31812.2.2.2 Battery Management System Data Extraction 31812.2.2.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 31912.2.2.4 Incremental Capacity Analysis (ICA) 32012.2.3 Engineering Challenges 32012.2.4 Economic Challenges 32112.2.5 Legal Challenges 32212.2.6 Current Implementations 32312.2.7 Outlook 324References 32413 Recycling Procedures for Energy Storage Devices in the Scope of the Electric Vehicle Implementation 335Carlos Miguel Costa, Yifeng Wang, Eider Goikolea, Qi Zhang, Hélder Castro, Renato Gonçalves, and Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez13.1 Introduction 33513.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries: Environmental Impact and Sustainability 33613.3 Lithium-Ion Batteries: Recycling Strategies and Processes 33713.3.1 Electrode Recycling Approaches 33713.3.1.1 Pyrometallurgical Methods 33713.3.2 Separators/electrolytes 35613.4 Status of the Battery Electric Vehicle Fleet 35613.4.1 Battery Demand 35613.4.2 Battery Electric Vehicle Outlook 36113.4.2.1 Sustainability 36113.4.2.2 Production Stage 36213.4.2.3 Use Stage 36213.4.2.4 End of Life and Analysis 36313.5 Conclusions and Outlook 365Acknowledgments 366References 36614 Summary and Outlook 375Renato Gonçalves, Arkaitz Fidalgo-Marijuan, Carlos Miguel Costa, and Senentxu Lanceros-MéndezAcknowledgments 377References 377Index 379