Surveying

Jack C. McCormac is a retired Clemson civil engineering professor named by the Engineering News Record as one of the top 125 engineers or architects in the world in the last 125 years for his contributions to education. McCormac has authored or co-authored seven engineering textbooks, with more than half a million copies now in print. His current books have been adopted at more than 500 universities throughout the world. McCormac holds a BS in civil engineering from the Citadel, an MS in civil engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a Doctor of Letters from Clemson University. Named an Alumni Distinguished Professor, he taught at Clemson for approximately thirty-four years before retiring in 1989. He is included in the International Who's Who in Engineering.

• Preface1 Introduction 1.1 Surveying 1.2 Geomatics 1.3 Famous Surveyors 1.4 Early History of Surveying 1.5 Plane Surveys 1.6 Geodetic Surveys 1.7 Types of Surveys 1.8 Modern Surveying Equipment 1.9 Use of Old Surveying Equipment 1.10 Maintenance of Equipment 1.11 Importance of Surveying 1.12 Safety 1.13 Liability Insurance 1.14 Opportunities in Surveying2 Introduction to Measurements 2.1 Measurement 2.2 Necessity for Accurate Surveys 2.3 Accuracy and Precision 2.4 Errors and Mistakes 2.5 Sources of Errors 2.6 Systematic and Accidental or Random Errors 2.7 Discussion of Accidental or Random Errors 2.8 Occurrence of Accidental or Random Errors 2.9 Probability Curve 2.10 Propagation of Accidental or Random Errors 2.11 Significant Figures 2.12 Field Notes 2.13 Electronically Recorded Notes 2.14 Office Work and Digital Computers 2.15 Planning Problems3 Distance Measurement 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pacing 3.3 Odometers and Measuring Wheels 3.4 Tachymetry 3.5 Taping or Chaining 3.6 Electronic Distance Measurements 3.7 Global Positioning System 3.8 Summary of Measurement Methods 3.9 Equipment Required for Taping 3.10 Taping Over Level Ground 3.11 Taping Along Sloping Ground or Over Underbrush 3.12 Review of Some Trigonometry Problems4 Distance Corrections 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Types of Corrections 4.3 Incorrect Tape Length or Standardization Error 4.4 Temperature Variations 4.5 Slope Corrections 4.6 Sag and Tension Corrections 4.7 Combined Taping Corrections 4.8 Common Mistakes Made In Taping 4.9 Errors In Taping 4.10 Magnitude of Errors 4.11 Suggestions for Good Taping 4.12 Taping Precision5 Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMs) 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Basic Terms 5.3 Types of EDMs 5.4 Phase Shift EDMs 5.5 Timed Pulse EDMs 5.6 Setting Up, Leveling, and Centering EDMs 5.7 Necessary Steps for Measuring Distances with EDMs 5.8 Errors in EDM Measurements 5.9 Calibration of EDM Equipment 5.10 Accuracies of EDMs 5.11 Computation of Horizontal Distances from Slope Distances 5.12 Training of Personnel 5.13 Summary of Comments on EDMs Problems6 Introduction to Leveling 6.1 Importance of Leveling 6.2 Basic Definitions 6.3 Reference Elevations or Datums 6.4 First-, Second-, and Third-Order Surveys 6.5 Methods of Leveling 6.6 The Level 6.7 Types of Levels 6.8 Level Rods 6.9 Setting up the Level 6.10 Sensitivity of Bubble Tubes 6.11 Care of Equipment Problems7 Differential Leveling 7.1 Theory of Spirit Leveling 7.2 Definitions 7.3 Differential Leveling Described 7.4 Earth's Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction 7.5 Verniers 7.6 Level Rod Targets 7.7 Common Leveling Mistakes 7.8 Leveling Errors 7.9 Suggestions for Good Leveling 7.10 Comments On Telescope Readings 7.11 Precision of Differential Leveling 7.12 Hand Signals 8 Leveling, Continued 8.1 Adjustments of Level Circuits 8.2 Precise Leveling 8.3 Profile Leveling 8.4 Profiles 8.5 Cross Sections 8.6 Nonclosed Leveling RoutesProblems9 Angles and Directions 9.1 Meridians 9.2 Units for Measuring Angles 9.3 Azimuths 9.4 Bearings 9.5 The Compass 9.6 Variations In Magnetic Declination 9.7 Direction Arrow Convention 9.8 Local Attraction 9.9 Reading Bearings With a Compass 9.10 Detecting Local Attraction 9.11 Traverse Angle Definitions 9.12 Traverse Computations 9.13 Magnetic Declination Problems Problems10 Measuring Angle and Directions With Total Stations 10.1 Transits and Theodolites (Obsolete) 10.2 Introduction to Total Stations 10.3 Types of Total Stations 10.4 Disadvantages of Total Stations 10.5 Advantages of Total Stations 10.6 Parts of Total Stations 10.7 Surveying With Total Stations 10.8 Setting Up the Total Station 10.9 Sighting the Instrument 10.10 Measuring Horizontal Angles 10.11 Closing the Horizon 10.12 Measuring Angles By Repetition 10.13 Direction Method for Measuring Horizontal Angles 10.14 Measuring Zenith Angles 10.15 Use of Data Collectors With Total Stations 10.16 Care of Instruments Problems11 Miscellaneous Angle Discussion 11.1 Common Errors In Angle Measurement 11.2 Common Mistakes In Measuring Angles 11.3 Angle-Distance Relationships 11.4 Traversing 11.5 Older Methods of Traversing 11.6 Modern Traversing With Total Stations 11.7 Intersection of Two Lines 11.8 Measuring An Angle Where The Instrument Cannot Be Set Up 11.9 Prolonging a Straight Line By Double Centering 11.10 Establishing Points On a Straight Line Between Two Given Points 11.11 Cleaning Surveying Equipment Problems12 Traverse Adjustment and Area Computation 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Computations 12.3 Methods of Calculating Areas 12.4 Traverse Adjustment Overview 12.5 Balancing Angles 12.6 Latitudes and Departures 12.7 Error of Closure 12.8 Balancing Latitudes and Departures 12.9 Double Meridian Distances 12.10 Double Parallel Distances 12.11 Rectangular Coordinates 12.12 Areas Computed By Coordinates 12.13 Alternative Coordinate Method 12.14 Areas Within Irregular Boundaries Problems13 Computer Calculations and Omitted Measurements 13.1 Computers 13.2 Programs 13.3 Application of the Computer Program SURVEY 13.4 Computer Example 13.5 A Potential Warning: Danger In Computer Use 13.6 Omitted Measurements 13.7 Length and Bearing Of One Side Missing 13.8 Using Survey to Determine the Length and Bearing of a Missing Side 13.9 Example Radiation Problem 13.10 Computer Solution for Radiation Problem 13.11 Resection Problems14 Topographic Surveying 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Contours 14.3 Plotting of Topographic Maps 14.4 Summary of Contour Characteristics 14.5 Map Symbols 14.6 Completing the Map 14.7 Specifications for Topographic Maps 14.8 Methods of Obtaining Topography 14.9 Transit-Stadia Method of Mapping 14.10 Plane Table Surveys 14.11 Topographic Details Obtained With Total Stations 14.12 Selection of Points for Topographic Mapping 14.13 Profiles From Contour Maps 14.14 Checklist of Items to Be Included On a Topographic Map Problems15 The Global Positioning System (GPS) 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Monitoring Stations 15.3 Global Navigation Satellite System 15.4 Uses of GPS 15.5 Basic Theory 15.6 How Can the Travel Time of a Satellite Signal Be Measured? 15.7 Clock Bias 15.8 GPS Errors 15.9 Minimizing Errors Through Differential Correction 15.10 Receivers 15.11 HARN 15.12 CORS 15.13 OPUS 15.14 WAAS 15.15 GPS Signals Problems16 GPS Field Applications 16.1 Geoid and Ellipsoid 16.2 Field Applications 16.3 Static GPS Surveys 16.4 Kinematic GPS 16.5 Real-Time Kinematic Surveying 16.6 Virtual Reference Station 16.7 Dilution of Precision (DOP) 16.8 Planning 16.9 Example Problem 16.10 Network Adjustment 16.11 Carrier Phase GPS Problems 17 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 17.1 Introduction 17.2 What? A Definition of Geographic Information Systems 17.3 Who and Where? 17.4 Why GIS? 17.5 When? The Evolution of GIS 17.6 Thematic Layering 17.7 Levels of Use of a GIS 17.8 Uses of Geographic Information Systems 17.9 Objectives of a GIS 17.10 Applications of a GIS 17.11 GIS on the World Wide Web 17.12 Accuracy in a GIS 17.13 Control Surveying 17.14 Legal Concerns With GIS Problems18 GIS, Continued 18.1 Essential Elements of a GIS 18.2 Selected Data About Geographic Locations 18.3 GIS Software 18.4 GIS Hardware 18.5 Sources of GIS Data 18.6 Putting Data into the Computer 18.7 Preprocessing Existing Data 18.8 Data Management and Retrieval 18.9 Manipulation and Analysis 18.10 Product Generation 18.11 Coordinates and Map Projections 18.12 Raster GIS 18.13 Conclusion to GIS Discussion Problems19 Construction Surveying 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Work of the Construction Surveyor 19.3 Trade Unions 19.4 Property Survey from the Contractor's Viewpoint 19.5 Preliminary Surveys 19.6 Grade Stakes 19.7 Referencing Points for Construction 19.8 Building Layout 19.9 Base Lines (Layout Performed By Surveyors) 19.10 Radial Staking Methods 19.11 Batter Boards 19.12 Building Layout: Contractor Method 19.13 As-Built Surveys Problems 20 Volumes 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Slopes and Slope Stakes 20.3 Borrow Pits 20.4 Cross Sections 20.5 Areas of Cross Sections 20.6 Computation of Earthwork Volumes 20.7 Mass Diagram 20.8 Accounting for Shrinkage and Swell 20.9 Volumes from Contour Maps 20.10 Volume Formulas for Geometric Shapes Problems 21 Land Surveying or Property Surveying 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Title Transfer and Land Records 21.3 Common Law 21.4 Monuments 21.5 Blazing Trees 21.6 The Land Surveyor: A Specialist 21.7 Monuments, Bearings, Distances, and Areas 21.8 Miscellaneous Terms Relating to Land Surveying 21.9 Resurveys 21.10 Metes and Bounds 21.11 The U.S. Public Lands Survey System 21.12 Early Days of the System 21.13 Outline of the System 21.14 Meander Lines 21.15 Witness Corners 21.16 Deed Descriptions of LandProblems 22 Horizontal Curves 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Degree of Curvature and Radius of Curvature 22.3 Curve Equations 22.4 Deflection Angles 22.5 Selection and Staking Out of Curves 22.6 Computer Example 22.7 Field Procedure for Staking Out Curves 22.8 Circular Curves Using the SI System 22.9 Horizontal Curves Passing Through Certain Points 22.10 Spiral Curves Problems 23 Vertical Curves 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Vertical Curve Calculations 23.3 Miscellaneous Items Relating to Vertical Curves 23.4 Unequal-Tangent Vertical Curves 23.5 Vertical Curve Passing Through a Specified Point 23.6 Parabolic Curve Equation 23.7 Computer Example 23.8 Roadway Crowns 23.9 Roadway Superelevation Problems 24 Surveying-the Profession 24.1 Surveying Licenses 24.2 Registration Requirements 24.3 Penalties for Practicing Surveying Without a License 24.4 Reasons for Becoming Registered 24.5 A Profession 24.6 Code of Ethics 24.7 To Be Classed as a Professional 24.8 Conclusion Problems APPENDIX A: Some Useful Addresses APPENDIX B: Baccalaureate Degree Programs in Surveying APPENDIX C: Some Useful Formulas Glossary Index