Success Factors for Fish Larval Production

About the EditorsLUÍS E.C. CONCEIÇÃO is a founder of SPAROS, a start-up company that arose from the Centre of Marine Sciences of the University of the Algarve, Portugal. SPAROS is devoted to innovation in fish feeding and nutrition. Luis was Vice-Chair of LARVANET. AMOS TANDLER is based at the National Center for Mariculture in Eilat, Israel, which he directed and which is part of Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research. He was Chair of LARVANET. He and his students pioneered the science behind marine fish larval research, being the foundation for innovations and the development of the sprouting Israeli Mariculture industry.

• Acknowledgements xvii1 Introduction 1Reference 22 Gamete Quality and BroodstockManagement in Temperate Fish 3HerveMigaud, Gordon Bell, Elsa Cabrita, Brendan McAndrew, Andrew Davie, Julien Bobe, Maria Paz Herráez and Manuel CarrilloIntroduction 3Egg and Sperm Quality and Assessment 4Egg Quality 4Sperm Quality 6Germ Cell Preservation 8Eggs 8Sperm Storage and Management 8Other Sources of Germplasm: Undifferentiated Germ Cells and SurrogateProduction 9Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs 10Broodstock Nutrition 11Background 11Salmonids 11Bass, Bream and Related Sparids 13Atlantic Cod 15Flatfish 15Carp 17Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs 17Applications of Genetics and Genomics to Broodstock Management 17General Considerations and New Advances 17Selective Breeding Programmes 18Genetic Markers 22Functional Genomics 23Chromosome Set Manipulation 24Gene Transfer Technologies 26Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs 27Broodstock Environmental and Hormonal Manipulations 27General Concepts 27Entrainment of Reproduction: Proximate Factors 28Photoperiod Regimes Used in Aquaculture 30Temperature as an Ultimate Factor 31Spawning Induction Techniques 32Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs 35Overall Conclusions 35Acknowledgements 38References 383 Feeding Behaviour and Digestive Physiology in Larval Fish: Current Knowledge, and Gaps and Bottlenecks in Research 55Ivar Rønnestad, Manuel Yúfera, Bernd Ueberschär, Laura Ribeiro, Øystein Sæle and Clara BoglioneIntroduction 55Feeding Behaviour and Appetite 56Detection 56Capture and Ingestion 59Feeding Rhythms 61Neuroendocrine Control of Appetite and Ingestion 61Adaptation of Feeding Protocols to the Feeding Behaviour 63Digestive Physiology 63Ontogeny and Plasticity of the Digestive System 63Accessory Digestive Organs 66IntestinalModelling and Remodelling 67Digestion: An Overview 69Digestion of Proteins and Peptides 70Pancreatic Enzymes 70Enzymes in the Mucosal Layer 75Exogenous Enzymes 75Absorption 76Free Amino Acids 76Peptides 77Whole Proteins 78General Protein-Processing Capacity 79Gut Transit Rate Versus Dietary Protein Utilization 80Lipids 82Preintestinal Digestion of Lipids 82Intestinal Lipid Digestion 83Overall Processing Capacity for Lipids 85Digestion of Carbohydrates 86Regulatory Systems of Digestion 87Gastrointestinal Tract Hormones 89Other Gastrointestinal Tract Hormones 92Enteric Nervous Systems 92Future Research Strategies for Studies in Feeding Behaviour and DigestivePhysiology to Advance Larval Rearing of Marine Fish 93Acknowledgements 96References 964 Fish Larval Nutrition and Feed Formulation: Knowledge Gaps and Bottlenecks for Advances in Larval Rearing 123Kristin Hamre, Manuel Yúfera, Ivar Rønnestad, Clara Boglione, Luis E. C. Conceição and Marisol IzquierdoIntroduction 123Larval Nutrition 124What are the Larval Nutrient Requirements? 124Direct Measurements of Larval Requirements, for ExampleDose–Response 125Macronutrients 125Protein and Amino Acids 126Lipid Class Composition 127Essential Fatty Acids 129Vitamins 132Minerals 133Indirect Measurements 134Nutrient Utilization during the Yolk Sac Period 134Amino Acids 135Lipids 136Vitamins 137Nutrient Composition of Copepods 138Larval Body Composition 142Tracer Studies 143Extrapolation from Juveniles 145Feed Formulation 147Live Feed Enrichment 147Basic Levels of Nutrients in Rotifers and Artemia 147Opportunities and Limitations in Enrichment of Live Feed 150Formulated Diets 153General Characteristics of Formulated Larval Diets 153Types of Formulated Microdiets 154Technical Limitations 155Microdiet Formulation and Nutrition Experiments 156Gaps and Bottlenecks in Obtaining Knowledge on Nutritional Requirements of Marine Fish Larvae 157Acknowledgements 158References 1585 What Determines Growth Potential and Juvenile Quality of Farmed Fish Species? 177Luísa M.P. Valente, Katerina A. Moutou, Luis E.C. Conceição, Sofia Engrola, Jorge M.O. Fernandes and Ian A. JohnstonIntroduction 177Development of SkeletalMuscle 178Embryonic, Larval and JuvenileMuscle Growth:The Origin andRegulation of Myogenic Progenitor Cell Activity 178Control of Muscle Mass 185Protein Synthesis 185Protein Degradation 186Genetics of Muscle Growth 187Environmental Factors and Growth 193Seawater Temperature 193Nutrition 194Available Methodology to Assess Growth and Quality 195Histology, Histochemistry and Immunohistochemistry 196In situ Hybridization 196Real-time PCR 197Microarrays 197Transcriptome Analysis and Genome Editing 198Proteomics 200Cell Culture 200Tracer Studies 201Concluding Remarks 201Acknowledgements 202References 2026 Skeletal Anomalies in Reared European Fish Larvae and Juveniles. Part 1: Normal and Anomalous Skeletogenic Processes 219Clara Boglione, Paulo Gavaia, Giorgos Koumoundouros, Enric Gisbert, Mari Moren, Stéphanie Fontagné and Paul EckhardWittenIntroduction 219Plasticity, Ontogenesis, Remodelling and Resorption of Skeletal Elements in Teleost Fish 225Teleost Skeletal Tissues 225The Notochord 227Regulatory Mechanisms of Skeletal Tissues in Fish 228Bone Formation and the Replacement of the Cartilaginous Anlage 228Endochondral Ossification 229Perichondral Ossification 230Parachondral Ossification 231Intramembranous Ossification 231Modulation and Transformation 233Dedifferentiation, Transdifferentiation and Metaplasia 233Late Events in Teleost Skeletal Tissue Modelling and Remodelling 235Bone Resorption and Remodelling 236Osteocytic Osteolysis 237Main Gaps in Scientific Knowledge and Further Research Needs 237Acknowledgements 238References 2397 Skeletal Anomalies in Reared European Fish Larvae and Juveniles. Part 2:Main Typologies, Occurrences and Causative Factors 255Clara Boglione, Enric Gisbert, Paulo Gavaia, Paul E.Witten, Mori Moren, Stéphanie Fontagné and Giorgos KoumoundourosIntroduction 255Early Developmental Anomalies 257Vertebral Column Anomalies 261Non-salmonid Group 262Salmonid Group 265Vertebrae Anomalies 266Non-salmonid Group 267Salmonid Group 268Anomalies of the Fins 269Skull Anomalies 271Effects of Skeletal Anomalies on Fish Biological Performance 273Causative Factors of Skeletal Anomalies in Reared Fish 274Genetic Factors 274Non-genetic Factors: Nutrition 277Proteins and Amino Acids 278Lipids and Fatty Acids 279Vitamins 283Minerals 294Non-genetic Factors: Miscellaneous 297SortingMethods 301Elements of Solutions 301Main Gaps in Scientific Knowledge and Further Research Needs 304Acknowledgements 306References 3068 Microbiology and Immunology of Fish Larvae 331Olav Vadstein, Øivind Bergh, François-Joel Gatesoupe, Jorge Galindo-Villegas, Victoriano Mulero, Simona Picchietti, Giuseppe Scapigliati, Pavlos Makridis, Yngvar Olsen, Kristof Dierckens, Tom Defoirdt, Nico Boon, Peter de Schryver and Peter BossierIntroduction 331The Microbial Environment of Fish Larvae 332Methodological Aspects of Microbial Community Characterization 334Pathogens and Challenge Models 338Immunology of Fish Larvae 339Evolutionary Aspects of Innate Immunity in Fish 339Physical Barriers, the First Line of Defence 340Professional Phagocytes and other Myeloid Cells 340Signalling in Pattern Recognition 341PRRs Specificity in Fish 342Toll-like Receptors 342TLRs in Larval Fish 343Inflammatory Cytokines and Antimicrobial Responses 343Insiders of Immunity in Teleost Fish: The Mast Cells 344Mast Cell Antimicrobial Peptides: The Piscidins 345The Ontogeny of the Adaptive Immune System 346Maternal Transfer of IgM 346Development of T-cells and T-cell-associated Molecules 347Steering Larval Microbial Communities to the Benefit of the Host 349Microbial Contributions to Larval Nutrition and Physiology 349Steering the Microbial Community Composition and/or Activity 352Steering Microbial Community Composition 352Steering Microbial Activity 353Acknowledgements 354References 3549 Fantastically Plastic: Fish Larvae Equipped for a NewWorld 371Karin Pittman, Manuel Yúfera, Michail Pavlidis, Audrey J. Geffen,William Koven, Laura Ribeiro, José L. Zambonino-Infante and Amos TandlerIntroduction 371Mediating Environment – Structural Basis of Plasticity 375Pineal 375Thalamus/Hypothalamus 378The Pituitary 379Thyroid andThyroactive Compounds 380The Adrenals (Early Development of the Adrenocortical and ChromaffinTissues (‘Adrenals‘) in Fish) 381The Gonads 382The Acoustic-Lateralis System 385Structure of the Otolith System and its Components 385Otolith Formation 385Otolith Growth – Biomineralization and Control 386Osmoregulation System 387Functional Plasticity – Interactions Between the Internal and ExternalEnvironment Which Define the Phenotype 387Sex Differentiation 387Implication of TH in Metamorphic Processes 390Thyroid Hormone and Metamorphic Transformations 390Thyroid Hormone Response Genes in the Intestine 391Environmental Iodine as a TH Precursor 392Dietary Iodine and the Superiority of Natural Larval ZooplanktonPrey 393Does Dietary Iodine, as a TH Precursor, Drive Metamorphosis? 394The Cortisol Stress Response 395Profile of Whole-Body Cortisol Concentrations During Early Ontogeny 395Onset of the Cortisol Stress Response 396Digestive Tract Development and Remodelling 398Pigmentation 399Consequences of External Factors 403Environmental Information Content of the Otoliths 403Adapting to Salinity 405Effects of Temperature 406Common Effects of Temperature inMetabolic Rates 406Effects on Spawning and Embryonic Development 407Effects on Muscle and Skeletal Development 407Effect of Dietary Factors 409Consequences on Skeletal Structures and Anatomy 409Consequences on Metabolic Pathways 411Consequences on Cardiovascular Performance 412Consequences on Reproduction 413Integrating the Effect of External Factors 413Conclusions 415Acknowledgements 418References 41810 Quality Descriptors and Predictors in Farmed Marine Fish Larvae and Juveniles 443Giorgos Koumoundouros, Enric Gisbert, Ignacio Fernandez, Elsa Cabrita, Jorge Galindo-Villegas and Luis ConceiçãoIntroduction 443Morphology and Malformations 444Biochemical and Molecular Biomarkers of Bone Formation andRemodelling 447Markers for Cell Differentiation and Proliferation 447Markers of Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Mineralization andResorption 448Biomarkers of Bone Resorption 448Mineralization Ontogenesis and Mineral Content of SkeletalStructures 449Conclusions and Future Trends 449Nutritional Condition 452Growth Potential 455Immunology and Microbiology 456Sperm and Oocyte Quality as Predictor of Fertilizing Capacity 459Conclusions and Perspectives 461References 46311 Conclusions 473Broodstock and Egg Quality 474Microbiology, Immunology and Larval Health 475Feeding Biology and Digestive Function 475Nutritional Requirements 476Growth Potential and Dispersion 477Skeletal Deformities and Other Abnormalities 477Quality Indicators and Predictors 478Index 483