Strategic Communication Theory and Practice

Carl Botan is a Professor of Communication at George Mason University. He teaches undergraduate courses in Public Relations and graduate courses in Public Relations Theory, Research Methods, Introduction to Graduate Studies, International Relations, and Strategic Communication.

• List of Figures and Tables xvForeword xviiOverview of the Book xixPart I: Elements xixPart II: Strategies xxPart III: New Challenges xxPart I Elements 11 Strategic Communication Concepts 3Summary 3Strategic Communication Is Big and Getting Bigger 3Employment in SC 4SC on the Internet 4Organization and Goal of This Book 5Communication as Constitutive 6Role of information 6General Definition and Role of SC 7Tree metaphor of strategic communication as a gestalt 8Grand Strategy, Strategy and Tactics 9History 9Analoguing 11Specifically measurable outputs 12Level of analysis 12Grand Strategy 13Strategy 13Tactics 14Relationship of Grand Strategy, Strategy and Tactics 14Generic Grand Strategies 15Background 16Intransigent Grand Strategy 16Environment 16Change 16Publics 19Issues 19Research 19Communication 19Practitioners 19Resistant Grand Strategy 20Environment 20Change 20Publics 20Issues 20Research 21Communication 21Practitioners 21Partnership Grand Strategy 21Environment 21Change 22Publics 22Issues 22Research 22Communication 22Practitioners 22Cocreational Grand Strategy 22Environment 23Change 23Publics 23Issues 23Research 23Communication 23Practitioners 23Change in Grand Strategies 232 Theory in SC and the Cocreational Metatheory 25Summary 25Introduction 25Metatheory 25What Theory Is 26Minima for a Theory 27Kinds of Theories 28Formal and Informal Theory 28Less Formal Types of Theory 28Commonsense or everyday theory 29Lay or naive theory 29Thought experiments 30Positive and negative effects of lay theories 31More Formal Types of Theory 32Practice‐based theories 32Scientific theories 33Theory and Practice 34Experience versus Theory 34Learning from Established Fields 35Experience–Theory Link in SC 36Schools of Thought, Metatheory and Paradigms in SC 37Epistemology of SC 38Ontology 39Axiology 40Cocreational Metatheory in SC 40Background 40Lineage 41Positioning Cocreational Metatheory in SC 42Sequencing schools of thought in SC by metatheory and metaphor 43Instrumental school 44Modern/social scientific 45Cocreational Molecule and Model 47Components of Cocreational Molecule 47Circle 1: Publics starting point 48Box 2: Strategic research and information inflow 49Box 2A: Strategic information outflows 49Box 2B: Experience 50Box 3: Campaign planning 50Box 4: Campaign implementation 50Circle 5: Acceptance and interpretation of campaign messages 51Circle 6: New meaning cocreation 51Circle 7: Assessment and progress 51Levels of Evaluation 52Category 1 52Category 2 52Category 3 52Limitations of the Cocreational View in Evaluation 533 Stakeholders, Publics, Customers, Markets and Audiences 55Summary 55Introduction 56Labels and Subfields Are Important 56Practitioner or professional, scholar or academic 57Organization of the Chapter 57Different Ways Subfields of SC Think about the Groups We Communicate With 58Stakeholders 58Public 58Customer 61Markets and Marketing Communication 62Audiences 64Publics versus audiences 64Attributes of audiences 65Segmentation and Functions of Publics 66History of Segmentation 66Standardized or A Priori Terms 67Most important publics: target, critical, primary and crucial 68Other a priori publics: active, passive, latent, secondary and potential 68Campaign‐Specific or Customized Segmentation 68Altruistic Campaigns and Benefited Publics 69Process in Publics 70Instrumental School View of Publics 71Humanistic View of Publics 72Humanism in communication in SC 72Language use 72Semiotics and publics 73Humans make choices 744 Strategic Communication Ethics 75Summary 75Introduction 76Cocreationality and Ethics 76Parable of the Pig Perfumer 77Ethics, Morality and Law 77Ethics 77Two challenges to current codes 78Morality 79Law 79Need for an SC‐Specific Ethical Code 81Golden age of strategic communication? 81Ethical issues facing strategic communication 81Current Ethical Thought in SC and Its Subfields 82Current Formal Codes of Ethics in SC Subfields 82Disagreements in codes of ethics 84Agreements in codes of ethics 85Hired Gun or Mercenary 85Attorney in the Court of Public Opinion 85Other Ethical Models and Ongoing Questions 86Adapting to publics 86Cocreational Approach to Ethics 87Human Nature View of Ethics 88Image in strategic communication 89I‐images and h‐images 89Interpretive communities in strategic communication 90Monologic and dialogic campaigns 90Socially Responsible Strategic Communication (SRSC) 91Agency in socially responsible strategic communication 91Socially necessary information 92Social responsibility in practice 92Cocreational Code of Ethics for Strategic Communicators 93Grand strategic, strategic and tactical implications for ethics 93Application of Cocreational Ethics 94Cocreational Ethical Codes Disrupt Old Views of Ethics in SC 94Cocreational View of Ethics Applied to Pledges 95Sample Ethics Pledges for Communicators and Organizations 95Application: Cocreational View of Ethics Applied to Political Discourse 97Part II Strategies 995 Issues, Issues Management and Crises 101Summary 101Introduction and History 102Issues management 102Managing versus Cocreating Issues 102Issues and Problems 103Issues 103Other Cocreators 104Problems versus Issues 104Life Cycle of an Issue 105Up the Time Stream 105Attrition of Issues 106Stages of an Issue 107Pre‐Issues and Environmental Scanning 107Stage One: Embryonic Issues 108Stage Two: Open Issues 109Stage Three: Mature Issues 110Normal mature issues 110Crises 111Strategic versatility and strategic ambiguity 112Surprise in crises 113Truth in a crisis 113Meta‐crises or secondary crises 114Lurking Issues 115Conclusion 1156 Basic Theories of Strategic Communication 117Summary 117Introduction 117Basic Theory in SC 117Challenge 118Coorientation Theory 119Background 119Concepts in Coorientation Theory 120Evaluation of Coorientation 121Theory boxes explained 121Sense‐ Making Theory 122Background of Sense‐Making 122Concepts in Sense‐Making Theory 122Caveat on misapplying theories 123Application in SC 124Evaluation of Sense‐Making Theory 125Attribution Theory 126Background of Attribution Theory 126Concepts of Attribution Theory 126Applications of Attribution Theory 127Fundamental attribution error 128Self‐serving bias 129Evaluation of Attribution Theory 130Trust 130Background of Trust 130Concepts in Trust 130Measurement of Trust 132Applications of Trust 132Evaluation of Trust 133Persuading versus Informing 133Non‐Persuasive and Persuasive Subfields 133Background of non‐persuasive SC 134Academic non‐persuasive SC 135SC as a motivated practice 1357 Risk and Preparedness Communication 137Summary 137Introduction 137The Cocreational View of Risk Communication 138Two Components of All SC 139Social‐Emotional Dimension of Risk 141Cocreational Model of Risk Communication 141Traditional Risk and Disaster Preparedness Communication 143Emergency communication 143Disaster communication 143Preparedness Communication 143Readiness communication 144Terrorism communication 144The Cocreational View 144Understanding Risk Analytically and Experientially 146Assumption of rationality 146State Emergency Operations Plans 148Natural Disasters and the Environmental Risks 149Human‐Caused Disasters 149Expert–Media Relations 150Quasi‐Scientific Explanations 150Costs to Publics 151Conclusion 151Part III New Challenges 1538 Social Media and New Information Technology 155Summary 155Introduction 155Interconnected Publics and the Cocreation of Meaning 156Social Media–Cocreation Nexus 156Mass Media and Social Media 157Blessings and Curses 158Key Attributes of New Media 159Interactivity 159Demassification 159Asynchronicity 160Up the Time Stream with Social Media 160Success Rates of SC Campaigns 161The Free Lunch and the Changing of the Guard 163Shrilling of Public Discourse 1659 International and Intercultural Strategic Communication 167Summary 167Cocreational View of International and Intercultural Strategic Communication 167Intercultural and Cross‐Cultural Models 168Ethnocentric and polycentric models 169Ontological knowledge 169Planning, Evaluation and Ethics in Intercultural SC Campaigns 169Lens and Mirror 170Matrix 170Background of the matrix 171Four factors of the matrix 171Matrix and cocreationality 172Public Diplomacy as International/Intercultural SC 173Conclusion 17410 Strategic Communication in Terrorism and Counterterrorism:The Missing Narrative 175Summary 175Introduction 175Terrorism as Strategic Communication 176Meaning and Strategic Communication Purpose of Terrorism 177Terrorism’s Critical Publics 178View of the Role of Mass Media in Terrorism 178Effects of media coverage of terrorism 179Terrorism’s use of pseudo‐events 179Narrative Featured in Terrorist Strategic Communication 180Narrative as storytelling 183Narrative, naming and framing 183Cyberterrorism and the New Media 184Cocreational View of Terrorism Communication 185Strategic content in terrorist communication 186Counterterrorism Strategic Communication 187Introduction 187Narrative in Counterterror Strategic Communication 188Law of the Instrument 189No horse in the race 190Overdependence on military‐legal‐expert responses 191Mass Media Limitations in Counterterrorism 193Conclusion 194References and Further Reading 197Index 223