Space Electronic Reconnaissance

Fucheng Guo, National University of Defense Technology, P.R. ChinaYun Fan, National University of Defense Technology, P.R. ChinaYiyu Zhou, National University of Defense Technology, P.R. ChinaCaigen Zhou, National University of Defense Technology, P.R. ChinaQiang Li, National University of Defense Technology, P.R. China

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xvAcronyms xvii1 Introduction to Space Electronic Reconnaissance Geolocation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 An Overview of Space Electronic Reconnaissance Geolocation Technology 31.2.1 Geolocation of an Emitter on the Earth 31.2.2 Tracking of an Emitter on a Satellite 81.2.3 Geolocation by Near-Space Platforms 91.3 Structure of a Typical SER System 9References 112 Fundamentals of Satellite Orbit and Geolocation 132.1 An Introduction to the Satellite and Its Orbit 132.1.1 Kepler’s Three Laws 132.1.2 Classification of Satellite Orbits 152.2 Orbit Parameters and State of Satellite 182.2.1 Orbit Elements of a Satellite 182.2.2 Definition of Several Arguments of Perigee and Their Correlations 202.3 Definition of Coordinate Systems and Their Transformations 212.3.1 Definition of Coordinate Systems 212.3.2 Transformation between Coordinate Systems 252.4 Spherical Model of the Earth for Geolocation 272.4.1 Regular Spherical Model for Geolocation 272.4.2 Ellipsoid Model of the Earth 272.5 Coverage Area of a Satellite 302.5.1 Approximate Calculation Method for the Coverage Area 302.5.2 Examples of Calculation of the Coverage Area 312.5.3 Side Reconnaissance Coverage Area 332.6 Fundamentals of Geolocation 332.6.1 Spatial Geolocation Plane 342.6.2 Spatial Line of Position (LOP) 342.7 Measurement Index of Geolocation Errors 382.7.1 General Definition of Error 382.7.2 Geometrical Dilution of Precision (GDOP) 402.7.3 Graphical Representation of the Geolocation Error 402.7.4 Spherical Error Probability (SEP) and Circular Error Probability (cep) 412.8 Observability Analysis of Geolocation 44References 453 Single-Satellite Geolocation System Based on Direction Finding 473.1 Direction Finding Techniques 473.1.1 Amplitude Comparison DF Technique 483.1.2 Interferometer DF Technique 493.1.3 Array-Based DF Technique 553.1.4 Other DF Techniques 573.2 Single-Satellite LOS Geolocation Method and Analysis 573.2.1 Model of LOS Geolocation 573.2.2 Solution of LOS Geolocation 593.2.3 CRLB of the LOS Geolocation Error 603.2.4 Simulation and Analysis of the LOS Geolocation Error 623.2.5 Geometric Distribution of the LOS Geolocation Error 633.3 Multitimes Statistic LOS Geolocation 643.3.1 Single-Satellite Multitimes Triangulation 653.3.2 Average for Single-Satellite Multitimes Geolocation 663.3.3 Weighted Average for Single-Satellite Multitimes Geolocation 673.3.4 Simulation of Single-Satellite LOS Geolocation 673.4 Single HEO Satellite LOS Geolocation 733.4.1 Analysis of Single GEO Satellite LOS Geolocation 733.4.2 Geosynchronous Satellite Multitimes LOS Geolocation 74References 774 Multiple Satellites Geolocation Based on TDOA Measurement 794.1 Three-Satellite Geolocation Based on a Regular Sphere 804.1.1 Three-Satellite Geolocation Solution Method 804.1.2 Multisatellite TDOA Geolocation Method 824.1.3 CRLB of a Multisatellite TDOA Geolocation Error 854.1.4 Osculation Error of the Spherical Earth Model 864.2 Three-Satellite Geolocation Based on the WGS-84 Earth Surface Model 884.2.1 Analytical Method 894.2.2 Spherical Iteration Method 924.2.3 Newton Iteration Method 944.2.4 Performance Comparison among the Three Solution Methods 964.2.5 Altitude Input Location Algorithm 1004.3 Ambiguity and No-Solution Problems of Geolocation 1024.3.1 Ambiguity Problem of Geolocation 1024.3.2 No-Solution Problem of Geolocation 1064.4 Error Analysis of Three-Satellite Geolocation 1094.4.1 Analysis of the Random Geolocation Error 1094.4.2 Analysis of Bias Caused by Altitude Assumption 1124.4.3 Influence of Change of the Constellation Geometric Configuration on Gdop 1144.5 Calibration Method of the Three-Satellite TDOA Geolocation System 1174.5.1 Four-Station Calibration Method and Analysis 1174.5.2 Three-Station Calibration Method 125References 1305 Dual-Satellite Geolocation Based on TDOA and FDOA 1335.1 Introduction of TDOA–FDOA Geolocation by a Dual-Satellite 1335.1.1 Explanation of Dual-Satellite Geolocation Theory 1335.1.2 Structure of Dual-Satellite TDOA–FDOA Geolocation System 1345.2 Dual LEO Satellite TDOA–FDOA Geolocation Method 1365.2.1 Geolocation Model 1365.2.2 Solution Method of Algebraic Analysis 1385.2.3 Approximate Analytical Method for Same-Orbit Satellites 1415.2.4 Method for Eliminating an Ambiguous Geolocation Point 1435.3 Error Analysis for TDOA–FDOA Geolocation 1445.3.1 Analytic Method for the Geolocation Error 1445.3.2 GDOP of the Dual LEO Satellite Geolocation Error 1465.3.3 Analysis of Various Factors Influencing GDOP 1515.4 Dual HEO Satellite TDOA–FDOA Geolocation 1525.4.1 Dual Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites TDOA–FDOA Geolocation 1525.4.2 Calibration Method Based on Reference Sources 1555.4.3 Calibration Method Using Multiple Reference Sources 1595.4.4 Flow of Calibration and Geolocation 1645.5 Method of Measuring TDOA and FDOA 1655.5.1 The Cross-Ambiguity Function 1655.5.2 Theoretical Analysis on the TDOA–FDOA Measurement Performance 1665.5.3 Segment Correlation Accumulation Method for CAF Computation 1685.5.4 Resolution of Multiple Signals of the Same Time and Same Frequency 172References 1746 Single-Satellite Geolocation System Based on the Kinematic Principle 1776.1 Single-Satellite Geolocation Model 1776.2 Single-Satellite Single-Antenna Frequency-Only Based Geolocation 1796.2.1 Frequency-Only Based Geolocation Method 1796.2.2 Analysis of the Geolocation Error 1806.2.3 Analysis of the Frequency-Only Based Geolocation Error 1816.3 Single-Satellite Geolocation by the Frequency Changing Rate Only 1836.3.1 Model of Geolocation by the Frequency Changing Rate Only 1836.3.2 CRLB of the Geolocation Error 1856.3.3 Geolocation Simulation 1866.4 Single-Satellite Single-Antenna TOA-Only Geolocation 1866.4.1 Model and Method of TOA-Only Geolocation 1866.4.2 Analysis of the Geolocation Error 1896.4.3 Geolocation Simulation 1926.5 Single-Satellite Interferometer Phase Rate of Changing-Only Geolocation 1926.5.1 Geolocation Model 1926.5.2 Geolocation Algorithm 1956.5.3 CRLB of the Geolocation Error 1966.5.4 Calculation Analysis of the Geolocation Error 197References 2017 Geolocation by Near-Space Platforms 2037.1 An Overview of Geolocation by Near-Space Platforms 2037.1.1 Near-Space Platform Overview 2037.1.2 Geolocation by the Near-Space Platform 2047.2 Multiplatform Triangulation 2047.2.1 Theory of 2D Triangulation 2047.2.2 Error Analysis for Dual-Station Triangulation 2057.2.3 Optimal Geometric Configuration of Observers 2077.3 Multiplatform TDOA Geolocation 2117.3.1 Theory of Multiplatform TDOA Geolocation 2117.3.2 2D TDOA Geolocation Algorithm 2127.3.3 TDOA Geolocation Using the Altitude Assumption 2157.3.4 3D TDOA Geolocation Algorithm 2157.4 Localization Theory by a Single Platform 2177.4.1 Measurement Model of Localization 2187.4.2 A 2D Approximate Localization Method 2197.4.3 MGEKF (Modified Gain Extended Kalman Filter) Localization Method 2217.4.4 Simulation 223References 2258 Satellite-to-Satellite Passive Orbit Determination by Bearings Only 2278.1 Introduction 2278.2 Model and Method of Bearings-Only Passive Tracking 2278.2.1 Mathematic Model in the Case of the Two-Body Problem 2288.2.2 Tracking Method in the Case of the Two-Body Model 2298.2.3 Mathematical Model Considering J 2 Perturbation of Earth Oblateness 2328.2.4 Tracking Method Considering J 2 Perturbation of Earth Oblateness 2338.3 System Observability Analysis 2358.3.1 Description Method for System Observability 2358.3.2 Influence of Factors on the State Equation 2368.3.3 Influence of Factors on the Measurement Equation 2378.4 Tracking Simulation and Analysis 2398.4.1 Simulation in the Case of the Two-Body Model 2418.4.2 Simulation Considering J 2 Perturbation of Earth Oblateness 2518.5 Summary 258References 2599 Satellite-to-Satellite Passive Tracking Based on Angle and Frequency Information 2619.1 Introduction of Passive Tracking 2619.2 Tracking Model and Method 2629.2.1 Mathematic Model in the Case of the Two-Body Model 2629.2.2 Tracking Method in the Case of the Two-Body Model 2639.2.3 Mathematical Models Considering J 2 Perturbation of Earth Oblateness 2669.2.4 Tracking Method Considering J 2 Perturbation of Earth Oblateness 2679.3 System Observability Analysis 2689.3.1 Influence of Factors of the State Equation 2699.3.2 Influence of Factors of the Measurement Equation 2699.4 Simulation and Its Analysis 2779.4.1 Simulation in the Case of the Two-Body Model 2789.4.2 Simulation Considering J 2 Perturbation of Earth Oblateness 2969.5 Summary 308References 30910 Satellite-to-Satellite Passive Orbit Determination Based on Frequency Only 31110.1 The Theory and Mathematical Model of Passive Orbit Determination Based on Frequency Only 31310.1.1 The Theory of Orbit Determination Based on Frequency Only 31310.1.2 The System Model in the Case of the Two-Body Model 31310.1.3 The System Model for J 2 Perturbation of Earth Oblateness 31510.2 Satellite-to-Satellite Passive Orbit Determination Based on PSO and Frequency 31710.2.1 Introduction of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) 31710.2.2 Orbit Determination Method Based on the PSO Algorithm 31910.3 System Observability Analysis 32010.3.1 Simulation Scenario 1 32210.3.2 Simulation Scenario 2 32310.3.3 Simulation Scenario 3 32510.4 CRLB of the Orbit Parameter Estimation Error 32910.5 Orbit Determination and Tracking Simulation and Its Analysis 33310.5.1 Simulation in the Case of the Two-Body Model 33410.5.2 Simulation in the Case of Considering the Perturbation 347References 34811 A Prospect of Space Electronic Reconnaissance Technology 349Appendix Transformation of Orbit Elements, State and Coordinates of Satellites in Two-Body Motion 351Index 355