Sounds of English Worldwide

Raymond Hickey is Adjunct Professor at the University of Limerick and Emeritus Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Duisburg and Essen. He has researched varieties of English for over 30 years and has authored and edited several books on the subject, including A Dictionary of Varieties of English (Wiley Blackwell, 2014) and The Handbook of Language Contact, Second Edition (Wiley Blackwell, 2020).

• List of Maps xiList of Figures xiiiList of Tables xvList of Abbreviations xviiiPreface xixHow to Use this Book xxiPart I Language and Variation 11 Studying Variation in Sound 31.1 Introduction 31.2 The View from the Sound System 101.3 Standards, Supraregional Varieties, and Vernaculars 191.4 Research Trends in Variety Studies 261.5 Data Sources and Analysis 321.5.1 Fieldwork Methods 321.5.2 Corpora for Varieties of English 331.5.3 Historical Sources 351.5.4 Use of “Bad Data” 361.5.5 Acoustic Analysis 372 The Sound System of English 392.1 Phonetics and Phonology 392.1.1 Syllable Structure 402.2 Vowels 432.2.1 The Principle of Lexical Sets 482.2.2 Standard Lexical Sets for English Vowels 492.2.3 Vocalic Distinctions/Splits 532.2.4 Extensions for Vocalic Lexical Sets 572.2.5 Mergers 592.2.6 Pre- sonorant Mergers 612.2.6.1 Pre- rhotic Mergers 622.2.6.2 Pre- lateral Mergers 672.2.7 Other Mergers 682.2.8 Chain Shifts 692.3 Consonants 722.3.1 The Consonants of English 722.3.2 Lexical Sets for Consonants in English 762.3.3 Consonantal Processes 782.3.4 Consonantal Developments 852.3.4.1 Dental Fricatives 852.3.4.2 Analyzing Lenition 862.3.4.3 The Story of R 912.3.4.4 The Story of l 942.3.4.5 The Glottal Fricative H 972.4 Prosody 982.4.1 Word Stress and Vowel Length Patterns 992.4.2 Sentence Intonation Patterns 1002.5 Connected Speech 1023 Sound Change in English 1053.1 Analyzing Change 1053.1.1 Movements in Sound Systems 1073.1.2 The Course of Language Change 1093.1.3 Motivation for Change: Internal and External 1123.1.4 Change by External Adoption 1133.1.5 Diffusion and Patterning 1153.1.6 Shared Innovations or Common Developments? 1153.1.7 Embryonic and Focused Varieties 1153.1.8 Scrutinizing Further Factors 1163.2 Trends in Present- Day Varieties 1183.2.1 Fronting of the GOOSE Vowel 1193.2.2 Short Front Vowel Lowering 121Part II The Spread of English 1271 The Colonial Period 1291.1 The British Empire 1291.2 Settlement of Colonies 1301.3 The Slave Trade 1321.4 Migration between Colonies 1321.5 Internal Migration 1352 Transported Dialect Features 1372.1 Early Stages and Their Effects 1382.1.1 Ship English 1392.1.2 The “Founder Principle” 1392.1.3 “Colonial Lag” 1402.2 Language Contact 1412.2.1 The Effects of Contact 1412.3 Language Shift 1432.4 Relic Areas and Endangered Varieties 1442.5 Loss of Transported Features 1453 English in the World Today 1473.1 The Two Hemispheres 1473.2 Major Anglophone Areas 1483.3 Dialects and Standards 1523.4 Regional Epicenters 154Part III Regions and Countries 1551 England 1571.1 Standard Southern British English 1601.2 London and the Home Counties 1601.2.1 Cockney 1621.2.2 Estuary English 1631.2.3 Multicultural London English 1651.2.4 British Black English 1651.3 The South and South- West 1661.4 East Anglia 1671.5 The Midlands – East and West 1681.6 The North – Lower, Central, and Far North 1691.6.1 The Lower North 1721.6.2 The Central North 1731.6.3 The Far North 1742 The Celtic Regions 1762.1 Scotland 1762.1.1 English in Scotland 1762.1.2 Scots 1792.1.3 Orkney and Shetland English 1802.2 Wales 1802.3 Ireland 1822.3.1 Southern Irish English 1842.3.2 Northern Irish English 1872.4 Isle of Man 1883 Europe 1903.1 Channel Islands 1903.2 Gibraltar 1903.3 Malta 1924 North America 1934.1 United States 1954.1.1 Supraregional American English 1964.1.2 Dialect Regions of the USA 1984.1.3 Selected Urban Varieties 2004.1.4 Selected Regional Varieties 2034.1.5 Relic Dialect Areas 2064.1.6 Ethnic Varieties 2094.1.7 American Versus British Pronunciation 2164.2 Canada 2174.2.1 Supraregional Canadian English 2184.2.2 Regional Forms of Canadian English 2205 The Caribbean 2245.1 Caribbean Creoles 2245.2 Eastern Caribbean 2265.3 Western Caribbean 2275.4 Caribbean Rim 2286 Africa 2316.1 West Africa 2336.1.1 Cameroon 2346.1.2 Nigeria 2356.1.3 Ghana 2356.1.4 Liberia 2366.1.5 Sierra Leone 2366.1.6 The Gambia 2366.2 East Africa 2376.2.1 Kenya 2376.2.2 Tanzania 2376.2.3 Uganda 2386.3 Southern Africa 2386.3.1 South Africa 2386.3.2 Zimbabwe 2457 The South Atlantic 2467.1 St. Helena 2467.2 Tristan da Cunha 2467.3 The Falkland Islands 2488 Asia 2518.1 South Asia 2518.1.1 India 2528.1.2 Pakistan 2558.1.3 Sri Lanka 2558.2 South- East Asia 2578.2.1 Malaysia 2578.2.2 Brunei 2578.2.3 Singapore 2578.2.4 The Philippines 2608.3 East Asia 2608.3.1 China 2608.3.2 Korea 2648.3.3 Japan 2649 Australasia 2669.1 Australia 2669.2 New Zealand 26910 The Pacific Region 27310.1 Background to English in the Pacific 27310.2 Melanesian Pidgin English 27410.3 Micronesia 28010.4 Ogasawara Islands 28111 Pidgins and Creoles 28311.1 English- Lexifier Pidgins and Creoles 28711.2 Creoles: Theories of Origin 28911.3 The Sound Systems of Pidgins and Creoles 29012 World Englishes and Second- Language Varieties 29112.1 Foreign Language Pronunciations 295Outlook 299Appendix A Timeline for Varieties of English 301I. Within Britain 301II. Northern Hemisphere 301III. Southern Hemisphere 303IV. Movements within the Anglophone World 304Appendix B The History of English 307B. 1 Old English (450–1066) 307B.1.1 The Dialects of Old English 308B.1.2 The Transition to Middle English 308B. 2 Middle English (1066–1500) 310B.2.1 The Dialects of Middle English 310B. 3 Early Modern English (1500–1700) 312B.3.1 The Great Vowel Shift 313B.3.2 Shortening of /uː/ and Relative Chronology 314B.3.3 Lowering and Unrounding of /ʊ/ 315B.3.4 The Loss of /ʍ/ 316B.3.5 The Loss and Shift of /x/ 317B.3.6 The Loss of Syllable- Final R 317B.3.7 The Standardization of English 318B. 4 Late Modern English (1700–1900) 319B. 5 Recommended Reading 320Appendix C Transcription Conventions 322Appendix D Lexical Sets and Extensions 326End Notes 330Glossary 336Overviews 352References 354Linguistic Journals 398Index 399