Sedimentary Petrology

Maurice E. Tucker graduated from Durham University and obtained his PhD from the University of Reading. He spent nearly 30 years at Durham University and is now a Visiting Professor at the University of Bristol. Stuart J. Jones graduated in Geology from Aberystwyth University and received his PhD from the University of Reading. He is currently an Associate Professor of Sedimentology at Durham University.

• Preface to Fourth Edition xivPreface to the Third Edition xvBiographies xvi1 Introduction: Basic Concepts and Approach 11.1 Introduction11.2 BasicConcepts 11.2.1 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 11.2.2 Sedimentary Environments and Facies 21.2.2.1 Facies 21.2.2.2 Facies Models 21.2.3 Controls on Deposition: Tectonics, Climate and Sea Level 31.2.3.1 Climate 41.2.3.2 Sea Level 41.2.4 Stratigraphic Practice 51.2.5 Sequence Stratigraphy 71.2.5.1 Introduction 71.2.5.2 Accommodation and Sedimentation Rates 71.2.5.3 Scale and Order 81.2.5.4 Stratigraphic Sequences, Key Surfaces, Systems Tracts 81.2.5.5 Metre-ScaleCycles, High-FrequencySequences, Parasequences 111.2.6 Diagenesis 131.3 Methodology131.3.1 In the Field 131.3.2 In the Laboratory 151.3.3 The Sedimentological Literature 17FurtherReading 182 Siliciclastic Sediments I: Sandstones, Conglomerates and Breccias 192.1 Introduction192.2 SedimentTexture 192.2.1 Grain Size and Grain-sizeParameters 212.2.1.1 Interpretation and Use of Grain-sizeAnalyses 262.2.2 Grain Morphology 272.2.3 Grain-surfaceTexture 282.2.4 Grain Fabric 292.2.5 Textural Maturity 302.3 SedimentaryStructures 312.3.1 Erosional Sedimentary Structures 312.3.2 Depositional Sedimentary Structures 342.3.2.1 Sediment Transport and Aqueous Flows 34Contents0005399227.INDD 7 12-29-2022 11:54:51viii Contents2.3.2.2 Bedding and Lamination 392.3.2.3 Current Ripples, Dunes and Cross-Stratification 402.3.2.4 Flaser and Lenticular Bedding 442.3.2.5 Antidunes and Antidune Bedding 452.3.2.6 Wave-formedRipples and Cross-Lamination452.3.2.7 Hummocky Cross-Stratification (HCS) 462.3.2.8 Wind Ripples, Dunes, Draas and Aeolian Cross-bedding472.3.2.9 Graded Bedding 502.3.2.10 Mudcracks: Desiccation and Syneresis 512.3.3 Post-depositionalSedimentary Structures 522.3.4 Biogenic Sedimentary Structures 562.4 PalaeocurrentAnalysis 602.4.1 Palaeocurrent Indicators 612.5 DetritalComponents of Siliciclastic Sediments 632.5.1 Rock Fragments 642.5.2 Quartz 652.5.3 Feldspars 672.5.4 Micas 692.5.5 Clay Minerals 692.5.6 Heavy Minerals 702.5.7 Other Detrital Components 712.5.8 Compositional Maturity 712.6 Classificationof Siliciclastic Sediments 722.6.1 Classification of Sandstones 722.6.2 Conglomerates and Breccias 752.6.2.1 Composition and Textures of Conglomerates 752.7 Petrographyand Origin of Principal Sandstone Types 772.7.1 Quartz Arenites 772.7.2 Arkoses 792.7.3 Litharenites 792.7.4 Greywackes 792.8 SandstoneComposition, Provenance and Tectonic Setting 822.9 SandstoneDiagenesis 842.9.1 Compaction and Pressure Dissolution 862.9.2 Silica Cementation 882.9.3 Carbonate Cementation 912.9.4 Feldspar Authigenesis 932.9.5 Clay-mineralAuthigenesis 932.9.6 Hematite Cementation and Pigmentation: Red Beds 972.9.7 Diagenetic Environments and Sequences 982.9.8 Diagenesis and Sequence Stratigraphy 1022.9.9 CO2 Sequestration into Sandstone Reservoirs 1042.10 Porosityand Permeability 1042.11 SedimentRouting Systems 1082.12 DepositionalEnvironments of Sandstones and Coarser Clastics 1102.12.1 Fluvial Systems and Facies 1102.12.1.1 Alluvial Fan Facies 1112.12.1.2 Meandering-streamFacies 1172.12.1.3 Anastomosing-streamFacies 1192.12.2 Desert Environments and Aeolian Sand Facies 1212.12.3 Lacustrine Environments and Sandy Facies 1222.12.4 Deltaic Environments and Facies 1240005399227.INDD 8 12-29-2022 11:54:51Contents ix2.12.4.1 River-dominatedDeltas 1272.12.4.2 Wave-dominatedDeltas 1282.12.4.3 Tide-dominatedDeltas 1292.12.4.4 Ancient Deltas 1302.12.4.5 Fan Deltas 1302.12.5 Marine Shoreline Environments and Facies 1312.12.5.1 Beach-barrierIsland and Strandplain Systems 1312.12.5.2 Tidal Flats 1352.12.5.3 Estuaries and Incised Valleys 1352.12.6 Shallow-marineShelves, Epeiric Seas and Their Facies 1362.12.6.1 Tidal Bedforms and Sand Sheets 1362.12.6.2 Tidal Sand Banks 1382.12.6.3 Non-tidalOffshore Sand Bodies 1382.12.7 Continental Margins and Deep-waterBasins 1392.12.8 Glacial Environments 1462.13 FaciesSequences, Controls and Sequence Stratigraphy 1482.13.1 Facies Sequences and Controls 1482.13.2 Sequence Stratigraphy 149References 151Further Reading 1643 Siliciclastic Sediments II: Mudrocks 1663.1 Introduction1663.2 Texturesand Structures of Mudrocks 1663.2.1 Nodules and Concretions 1693.3 TheColour of Mudrocks 1733.4 MineralConstituents of Mudrocks 1733.4.1 Clay Minerals 1743.4.2 Quartz 1773.4.3 Organic Matter 1773.4.4 Other Constituents 1773.5 TheFormation and Distribution of Clay Minerals in Modern Sediments 1793.6 Diagenesisof Clay Minerals and Mudrocks 1813.6.1 Early (Shallow) Diagenesis 1813.6.2 Burial (Deeper) Diagenesis 1843.7 Mudrocksand Their Depositional Environments 1863.7.1 Residual Mudrocks and Soils 1873.7.2 Detrital Mudrocks 1893.7.2.1 Non-marineMudrocks 1893.7.2.2 Marine Mudrocks 1903.7.2.3 Organic-richMudrocks and Black Shales 1923.7.2.4 Shale Gas 1933.7.2.5 Mud Diapirism and Mud Volcanoes 1943.7.2.6 Loess and Loessite 1953.7.3 Mudrocks of Volcaniclastic Origin 1973.7.4 Temporal (and Spatial) Variations in Mudrock Sequences 197References 198Further Reading 2034 Carbonate Sediments: Limestones and Dolomites 2044.1 Introduction2044.2 Techniquesfor the Study of Carbonate Sediments 2050005399227.INDD 9 12-29-2022 11:54:52x Contents4.2.1 In the Field 2054.2.2 The Petrographic Study of Carbonates 2054.2.3 Isotopes and Trace Elements 2074.3 Mineralogyof Carbonate Sediments 2094.4 CarbonateProduction and Factories 2104.4.1 Carbonate Factories 2114.4.2 Controls on Carbonate Production and Deposition 2124.5 Componentsof Carbonate Rocks 2144.5.1 Non-skeletalGrains 2144.5.1.1 Ooids and Pisoids 2144.5.1.2 Ancient Marine Ooids 2174.5.1.3 Origin of Ooids and Seawater Chemistry Through Time 2174.5.1.4 Peloids 2194.5.1.5 Aggregates and Intraclasts 2204.5.2 Skeletal Components (excluding Algae and Microbes) 2204.5.2.1 Mollusca 2214.5.2.2 Brachiopods 2244.5.2.3 Cnidaria (especially Corals) 2254.5.2.4 Echinodermata 2264.5.2.5 Bryozoa 2264.5.2.6 Foraminifera 2274.5.2.7 Other Carbonate-formingOrganisms 2284.5.3 The Contribution of Microbes to Carbonates 2304.5.3.1 Rhodophyta (Red Algae) 2304.5.3.2 Chlorophyta (Green Algae) 2314.5.3.3 Chrysophyta (Yellow-greenAlgae, Coccoliths) 2324.5.3.4 Calcified Cyanobacteria and Algae (Calcimicrobes) 2324.5.3.5 Micrite Envelopes and Microbial Micritisation 2334.5.3.6 Microbialites: Stromatolites, Thrombolites and Oncoids 2334.5.4 Lime Mud and Micrite 2384.6 Classificationof Limestones 2394.6.1 Classification Schemes 2394.6.2 Carbonate Microfacies and Standard Microfacies Types (SMF) 2414.7 LimestoneGrain Size and Texture 2434.8 SedimentaryStructures of Limestones 2444.8.1 Bedding Planes, Hardgrounds, Tepees and Palaeokarstic Surfaces 2444.8.2 Current and Wave Structures 2474.8.3 Cavity Structures 2484.9 CarbonateDiagenesis 2514.9.1 Marine Diagenesis 2524.9.1.1 Marine Diagenesis in Recent Carbonate Sediments 2524.9.1.2 Marine Diagenesis in Ancient Limestones 2564.9.1.3 Discussion of Marine Cements 2594.9.2 Meteoric Diagenesis 2604.9.2.1 Ancient Meteoric Calcite Cements 2624.9.3 Calcite Spar: A Meteoric and Burial Cement 2634.9.3.1 Origin of Calcite Spar 2644.9.4 Neomorphism (Recrystallisation) 2644.9.4.1 Microspar–pseudospar; Aggrading Neomorphism 2654.9.4.2 Calcitisation of Aragonite Grains and Cements 2664.9.4.3 Degrading Neomorphism 2664.9.5 Modelling Limestone Diagenesis 2660005399227.INDD 10 12-29-2022 11:54:52Contents xi4.9.6 Compaction 2664.9.6.1 Differential Compaction 2684.10 Dolomitisationand Dedolomitisation 2694.10.1 Dolomites: Nature and Occurrence 2694.10.2 Origin of Dolomites and Dolomitisation Models 2744.10.2.1 Modern Dolomites 2744.10.2.2 Ancient Dolomites 2754.10.2.3 Seawater Dolomitisation 2764.10.2.4 Burial Dolomitisation and Hydrothermal Dolomite (HTD) 2774.10.3 Modelling Dolomitisation 2784.10.4 Dedolomitisation (Calcitisation of Dolomite) 2794.11 Silicificationof Limestones 2814.12 Porosityin Carbonate Sediments 2814.12.1 Carbonate Paragenesis and Burial History Plots 2834.13 CarbonateDepositional Environments and Facies 2834.13.1 Non-marineCarbonate Sediments 2834.13.1.1 Lacustrine Limestones 2844.13.1.2 Pedogenic Carbonates: Calcrete and Dolocrete 2864.13.1.3 Spring Carbonates: Tufa and Travertine 2894.13.2 Marine Carbonates and Carbonate Platforms 2914.13.3 Shelf and Ramp Systems: Facies Belts and Standard Microfacies 2934.13.4 Intertidal–supratidal Carbonates 2934.13.5 Lagoonal Limestones 2944.13.6 Intertidal–subtidal Carbonate Sand Bodies and Storm Deposits 2954.13.7 Offshore Shelf-rampCarbonates: Storm Deposits, Internalites, Limestone-Mud/Marl Alternations(Ribbon Rocks) 2974.13.7.1 Storm Beds and Banks 2974.13.8 Reefs and Carbonate Buildups 2984.13.8.1 Reefs as Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 3014.13.9 Pelagic Limestones 3014.13.10 Resedimented Deeper-waterLimestones 3034.14 CarbonateSequence Stratigraphy and Forward Modelling 3064.14.1 Sequence Stratigraphy of Carbonate Shelves 3064.14.2 Sequence Stratigraphy of Carbonate Ramps 3084.14.3 Sequence Stratigraphy of Mixed Siliciclastic–Carbonate Successions 3094.14.4 Metre-scaleCycles (Parasequences) and their Stacking Patterns 3094.14.5 Diagenesis and Sequence Stratigraphy 3114.14.6 Modelling Carbonate Stratigraphy, Sequences and Cycles 311References 312Further Reading 325Websites 3255 Evaporites 3265.1 Introduction3265.1.1 Techniques for Studying Evaporites 3265.1.2 Early Geochemical Work 3265.2 EvaporiteDeposits and Depositional Environments 3285.3 Gypsumand Anhydrite 3315.3.1 Sabkha Sulphate and Nodular Anhydrite 3325.3.2 Bottom-growthGypsum 3325.3.3 Laminated Gypsum/Anhydrite 3335.3.4 Resedimented Gypsum-Anhydrite3360005399227.INDD 11 12-29-2022 11:54:52xii Contents5.3.5 Secondary and Fibrous Gypsum 3365.3.6 Burial Anhydrite 3375.4 Halite3375.5 OtherEvaporite Minerals and Their Occurrence 3415.5.1 Potassium and Magnesium Salts 3415.5.2 Lacustrine Evaporites 3425.6 EvaporiteDissolution and Replacement 3435.7 EvaporiteSequences and Discussion 3455.8 EvaporitesThrough Time 3495.9 Evaporites,Diapirism, Deformation and Decollement 350References 350Further Reading 3536 Sedimentary Ironstones and Iron Formations 3546.1 Introduction3546.1.1 Techniques for the Study of Ironstones and Iron Formations 3546.2 Sourceand Transportation of Iron 3556.3 Formationof the Principal Iron Minerals 3566.4 Occurrenceand Petrography of Iron Minerals 3596.4.1 Iron Oxides 3596.4.2 Iron Carbonates 3606.4.3 Iron Sulphides 3616.4.4 Iron Silicates 3616.5 PrecambrianIron Formations and Phanerozoic Ironstones 3646.5.1 Precambrian Iron Formations 3656.5.2 Phanerozoic Ironstones 3686.6 BogIron Ores 3706.7 FerromanganeseNodules and Crusts, and Metalliferous Sediments 370References 372Further Reading 3747 Sedimentary Phosphate Deposits 3757.1 Introduction3757.1.1 Techniques for Studying Phosphorites 3757.2 Mineralogy3757.3 Nodularand Bedded Phosphorites 3767.3.1 Recent–Subrecent Occurrences 3767.3.2 Origin of Marine Phosphorites 3767.3.3 Ancient Phosphorite Sequences 3797.4 Bioclasticand Pebble-BedPhosphorites 3817.5 Guanoand Ocean-IslandPhosphorites 382References 382Further Reading 3838 Coal and Petroleum 3848.1 Introduction3848.2 ModernOrganic Deposits 3848.3 AncientOrganic Deposits 3858.4 Coalsand the Coal Series 3868.4.1 Humic Coals 3888.4.2 Sapropelic Coals 3888.5 CoalPetrology 3888.5.1 Organic Constituents 3888.5.2 Inorganic Constituents 3908.5.3 Gas in Coal 3918.5.4 Coal Balls 3918.6 CoalFormation and Rank 3918.6.1 Chemical Considerations 3918.6.2 Rank, Depth and Temperature 3928.7 Occurrenceof Coal 3928.8 Formationof Kerogen 3948.9 Petroleum3958.9.1 Composition and Occurrence 3958.9.2 Formation of Petroleum 397References399FurtherReading 4009 Cherts and Siliceous Sediments 4019.1 Introduction4019.1.1 Techniques for Studying Chert 4019.2 ChertPetrology 4029.3 BeddedChert 4049.3.1 Siliceous Ooze and Bedded Chert 4049.3.1.1 Modern and Phanerozoic 4049.3.1.2 Precambrian Cherts 4069.3.2 The Origin of Chert 4079.4 NodularChert 4109.5 Non-MarineSiliceous Sediment and Chert 413References 415Further Reading 417Index 418