Alison Mackey is Professor and Chair of the Department of Linguistics at Georgetown University, USA.Susan M. Gass is University Distinguished Professor Emerita in Second Language Studies at Michigan State University, USA.

• ContentsPreface1.Introduction to Research1.1Research Methods1.2Different Types of Research1.3Ethical Practices1.3.1Informed Consent1.3.1.1Sufficient Information1.3.1.2The Informed Consent Document1.3.1.3Participant Comprehension in Informed Consent1.3.1.4The Language of Informed Consent1.3.1.5Voluntary Participation and Informed Consent1.3.2Child Second Language Learners1.3.3Issues Involved in Collecting Data Online1.3.4WEIRD Populations1.3.5Reporting and Anonymity1.4Institutional Review of Human Participants Research, Compliance, and Problem-Solving1.4.1Purpose of Reviews and IRB Responsibilities1.4.2Why Guidelines to Protect Human Subjects Were Developed1.4.3Development of Research Codes of Ethics1.4.4Preparing a Protocol for the IRB1.4.5General Use of Protocols in Research1.5ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…2.Research Reporting, Research Questions, and Replication2.1What Does a Research Report Look Like?2.1.1Quantitative Reporting2.1.1.1Title Page2.1.1.2Abstract2.1.1.3Introduction2.1.1.4Historical Overview2.1.1.5Major Players in this Research Area, Including Questions, Past Findings, and Controversies2.1.1.6General Goal of the Paper2.1.1.7Research Questions/Hypotheses2.1.1.8Methods Section2.1.1.9Participants2.1.1.10Materials2.1.1.11Procedures2.1.1.12Analysis2.1.1.13Results2.1.1.14Discussion/Conclusion2.1.1.15Notes2.1.1.16References2.1.1.17Appendices2.1.2Qualitative Reporting2.1.3Mixed-Method Reporting2.2Identifying Research Questions2.2.1Feasibility2.2.2Research Questions and Hypotheses2.3Replication2.4ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…3.Common Data Collection Measures3.1Introduction3.2The Significance of Data Collection Measures3.3Researching Formal Models of Language3.3.1Acceptability Judgments3.3.1.1Materials3.3.1.2Procedures3.3.2Gradient Judgments: Magnitude Estimation3.3.3Elicited Imitation3.3.4Interpretation Tasks3.4Psycholinguistics-Based Research3.4.1Sentence Interpretation3.4.2Reaction Time3.4.3Self-Paced Reading3.4.4Eye-Tracking3.4.5Neurolinguistic Elicitation3.5Interaction-Based Research3.5.1Picture Description Tasks3.5.2Spot the Difference3.5.3Jigsaw Tasks3.5.4Consensus Tasks3.5.5Consciousness-Raising Tasks3.5.6Computer-Mediated Research3.6Strategies and Cognitive Processes3.6.1Observations3.6.2Introspective Measures3.6.2.1Stimulated Recall3.6.2.2Think-Alouds or On-Line Tasks3.6.2.3Immediate Recalls3.7Sociolinguistic/Pragmatics-Based Research3.7.1Naturalistic Settings3.7.2Elicited Narratives3.7.2.1Silent Film3.7.2.2Film Strips with Minimal Sound3.7.2.3Picture Tasks3.7.2.4Narrative Inquiry3.7.3Discourse Completion Test (DCT)3.7.4Role Plays3.7.5Video Playback for Interpretation3.8Questionnaires and Surveys3.9Existing Databases3.10Pilot Testing3.11ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NotesSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…4.Coding4.1Preparing Data for Coding4.1.1Transcribing Oral Data4.1.1.1Transcription Conventions4.1.1.2Technology and Transcription4.2Data Coding4.2.1Scales of Measurement4.2.2Coding Nominal Data4.2.3Coding Ordinal Data4.2.4Coding Interval Data4.3Coding Systems4.3.1Common Coding Systems and Categories4.3.1.1T-Units4.3.1.2Suppliance in Obligatory Contexts (SOC)4.3.1.3Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency (CAF)4.3.1.4Qualitative Coding Categories4.3.2Custom-Made Coding Systems4.3.2.1Question Formation4.3.2.2Corrective Feedback4.3.2.3Classroom Interaction4.3.2.4Second Language Writing Research4.3.3Coding Interpretive and Qualitative Data4.4Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1Calculating Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1.1Simple Percentage Agreement4.4.1.2Cohen's Kappa4.4.1.3Additional Measures of Reliability4.4.1.4Good Practice Guidelines for Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1.5How Data Are Selected for Inter-Rater Reliability Tests4.4.1.6When to Carry out Coding Reliability Checks4.5The Mechanics of Coding4.5.1How Much to Code?4.5.2When to Make Coding Decisions4.6Software for Coding4.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…5.Research Variables, Validity, and Reliability5.1Introduction5.2Hypotheses5.3Variable Types5.3.1Independent and Dependent Variables5.3.2Moderator Variables5.3.3Intervening Variables5.3.4Control Variables5.4Operationalization5.5Validity5.5.1Content Validity5.5.2Face Validity5.5.3Construct Validity5.5.4Criterion-Related Validity5.5.5Predictive Validity5.5.6Internal Validity5.5.6.1Participant Characteristics5.5.6.2Language Background5.5.6.3Language Learning Experience5.5.6.4Proficiency Level5.5.6.5Participant Attrition5.5.6.6Participant Inattention and Attitude5.5.6.7Participant Maturation5.5.6.8Data Collection: Location and Collector5.5.6.9Instrumentation and Test Effect5.5.6.10Equivalence Between Pre- and Posttests5.5.6.11Giving the Goal of the Study Away5.5.6.12Instructions/Questions5.5.7External Validity5.5.7.1Sampling5.5.7.2Random Sampling5.5.7.3Nonrandom Sampling5.5.7.4Representativeness and Generalizability5.5.7.5Collecting Biodata Information5.6Reliability5.6.1Rater Reliability5.6.2Instrument Reliability5.6.2.1Test-Retest5.6.2.2Equivalence of Forms5.6.2.3Internal Consistency5.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NotesSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…6.Designing a Quantitative Study6.1Introduction6.2Research Materials6.3Intact Classes6.4Counterbalancing6.5Research Design Types6.5.1Correlational (Associational) Research6.5.2Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research6.5.2.1Comparison Group Design6.5.2.2Control Group Design6.5.3Measuring the Effect of Treatment6.5.3.1Pretest/Posttest Design6.5.3.2Posttest Only Design6.5.4Repeated Measures Design6.5.5Factorial Design6.5.6Time-Series Design6.5.7One-Shot Designs6.5.8Research Syntheses and Meta-Analyses6.6ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NoteSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…7.Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.1Defining Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.2Gathering Qualitative and Interpretive Data7.2.1Ethnographies7.2.1.1Advantages7.2.1.2Caveats7.2.2Case Studies7.2.2.1Advantages7.2.2.2Caveats7.2.3Interviews7.2.3.1Advantages7.2.3.2Caveats7.2.4Observations7.2.4.1Advantages7.2.4.2Caveats7.2.5Diaries/Journals7.2.5.1Advantages7.2.5.2Caveats7.3Analyzing Qualitative Data7.3.1Credibility, Transferability, Confirmability, and Dependability7.3.2Triangulation7.3.3The Role of Quantification in Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.4ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NoteSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…8.Classroom Research8.1Classroom Research Contexts8.2Common Techniques for Data Collection in Classroom Research8.2.1Observations8.2.1.1Conducting Classroom Observations8.2.1.2Observation Procedures and Coding Schemes8.2.1.3Description of Observation Schemes8.2.1.4Caveats to Using or Modifying Existing Observation Schemes8.3Introspective Methods in Classroom Research8.3.1Uptake Sheets8.3.2Stimulated Recall8.3.3Diary Research in Classroom Contexts8.4Practical Considerations in Classroom Research8.4.1Logistical Issues to Consider When Carrying out Classroom Research8.4.2Logistics8.4.2.1Informed Consent8.4.2.2Debriefing Participants and Facilitators8.4.2.3Ensuring Confidentiality and Minimizing Disruption8.4.2.4Data Segmentation and Coding8.4.2.5Considering the Instructional Setting8.4.2.6Summary of Logistics8.5Purposes and Types of Research Conducted in Classroom Settings8.5.1The Relationship between Instruction and Learning in Second Language Classrooms8.5.2Action Research8.5.2.1Definitions8.5.2.2Theory and Background to Action Research8.5.2.3Action Research in Practice8.5.3Aptitude-Treatment Interaction8.5.4Getting Your Footing in the Literature8.6ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…9.Mixed Methods9.1Introduction9.2What Are Mixed Methods?9.3Why Use Mixed Methods?9.4Types of Mixed-Methods Studies9.4.1 Concurrent Mixed-Methods9.4.2. Sequential Mixed-Methods9.5Conducting a Mixed-Methods Study9.5.1Deciding Whether or Not to Conduct a Mixed-Methods Study9.5.2Planning Phase9.6Analyzing Data from a Mixed-Methods Study9.7Software for Analysis9.8ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…10.Concluding and Reporting Research10.1The Importance of Reporting Research10.2The Final Stages in Reporting Quantitative Research10.2.1The Discussion10.2.2Limitations, Future Research, and Conclusion Sections10.3The Final Stages in Reporting Qualitative Research10.4Reporting Mixed-Methods Research10.5Checklist for Completing Reports of Research10.5.1The Research Problem and Questions10.5.2The Research Hypotheses10.5.3The Audience10.5.4The Abstract10.5.5The Literature Review10.5.6The Design of the Study10.5.7 Logistics10.5.8Participants10.5.9Data Gathering10.5.10Data Analysis10.5.11Conclusions10.5.12References10.5.13Footnotes, Endnotes, Figures, and Tables10.5.13.1Footnotes and Endnotes10.5.13.2Figures10.5.13.3Tables10.5.14Author’s Note/Acknowledgments10.5.15Post-Research Concerns10.5.16Final Touches and Formatting10.6Open Science10.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…GlossaryReferencesSubject Index

Alison Mackey is Professor and Chair of the Department of Linguistics at Georgetown University, USA.Susan M. Gass is University Distinguished Professor Emerita in Second Language Studies at Michigan State University, USA.

• ContentsPreface1.Introduction to Research1.1Research Methods1.2Different Types of Research1.3Ethical Practices1.3.1Informed Consent1.3.1.1Sufficient Information1.3.1.2The Informed Consent Document1.3.1.3Participant Comprehension in Informed Consent1.3.1.4The Language of Informed Consent1.3.1.5Voluntary Participation and Informed Consent1.3.2Child Second Language Learners1.3.3Issues Involved in Collecting Data Online1.3.4WEIRD Populations1.3.5Reporting and Anonymity1.4Institutional Review of Human Participants Research, Compliance, and Problem-Solving1.4.1Purpose of Reviews and IRB Responsibilities1.4.2Why Guidelines to Protect Human Subjects Were Developed1.4.3Development of Research Codes of Ethics1.4.4Preparing a Protocol for the IRB1.4.5General Use of Protocols in Research1.5ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…2.Research Reporting, Research Questions, and Replication2.1What Does a Research Report Look Like?2.1.1Quantitative Reporting2.1.1.1Title Page2.1.1.2Abstract2.1.1.3Introduction2.1.1.4Historical Overview2.1.1.5Major Players in this Research Area, Including Questions, Past Findings, and Controversies2.1.1.6General Goal of the Paper2.1.1.7Research Questions/Hypotheses2.1.1.8Methods Section2.1.1.9Participants2.1.1.10Materials2.1.1.11Procedures2.1.1.12Analysis2.1.1.13Results2.1.1.14Discussion/Conclusion2.1.1.15Notes2.1.1.16References2.1.1.17Appendices2.1.2Qualitative Reporting2.1.3Mixed-Method Reporting2.2Identifying Research Questions2.2.1Feasibility2.2.2Research Questions and Hypotheses2.3Replication2.4ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…3.Common Data Collection Measures3.1Introduction3.2The Significance of Data Collection Measures3.3Researching Formal Models of Language3.3.1Acceptability Judgments3.3.1.1Materials3.3.1.2Procedures3.3.2Gradient Judgments: Magnitude Estimation3.3.3Elicited Imitation3.3.4Interpretation Tasks3.4Psycholinguistics-Based Research3.4.1Sentence Interpretation3.4.2Reaction Time3.4.3Self-Paced Reading3.4.4Eye-Tracking3.4.5Neurolinguistic Elicitation3.5Interaction-Based Research3.5.1Picture Description Tasks3.5.2Spot the Difference3.5.3Jigsaw Tasks3.5.4Consensus Tasks3.5.5Consciousness-Raising Tasks3.5.6Computer-Mediated Research3.6Strategies and Cognitive Processes3.6.1Observations3.6.2Introspective Measures3.6.2.1Stimulated Recall3.6.2.2Think-Alouds or On-Line Tasks3.6.2.3Immediate Recalls3.7Sociolinguistic/Pragmatics-Based Research3.7.1Naturalistic Settings3.7.2Elicited Narratives3.7.2.1Silent Film3.7.2.2Film Strips with Minimal Sound3.7.2.3Picture Tasks3.7.2.4Narrative Inquiry3.7.3Discourse Completion Test (DCT)3.7.4Role Plays3.7.5Video Playback for Interpretation3.8Questionnaires and Surveys3.9Existing Databases3.10Pilot Testing3.11ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NotesSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…4.Coding4.1Preparing Data for Coding4.1.1Transcribing Oral Data4.1.1.1Transcription Conventions4.1.1.2Technology and Transcription4.2Data Coding4.2.1Scales of Measurement4.2.2Coding Nominal Data4.2.3Coding Ordinal Data4.2.4Coding Interval Data4.3Coding Systems4.3.1Common Coding Systems and Categories4.3.1.1T-Units4.3.1.2Suppliance in Obligatory Contexts (SOC)4.3.1.3Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency (CAF)4.3.1.4Qualitative Coding Categories4.3.2Custom-Made Coding Systems4.3.2.1Question Formation4.3.2.2Corrective Feedback4.3.2.3Classroom Interaction4.3.2.4Second Language Writing Research4.3.3Coding Interpretive and Qualitative Data4.4Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1Calculating Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1.1Simple Percentage Agreement4.4.1.2Cohen's Kappa4.4.1.3Additional Measures of Reliability4.4.1.4Good Practice Guidelines for Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1.5How Data Are Selected for Inter-Rater Reliability Tests4.4.1.6When to Carry out Coding Reliability Checks4.5The Mechanics of Coding4.5.1How Much to Code?4.5.2When to Make Coding Decisions4.6Software for Coding4.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…5.Research Variables, Validity, and Reliability5.1Introduction5.2Hypotheses5.3Variable Types5.3.1Independent and Dependent Variables5.3.2Moderator Variables5.3.3Intervening Variables5.3.4Control Variables5.4Operationalization5.5Validity5.5.1Content Validity5.5.2Face Validity5.5.3Construct Validity5.5.4Criterion-Related Validity5.5.5Predictive Validity5.5.6Internal Validity5.5.6.1Participant Characteristics5.5.6.2Language Background5.5.6.3Language Learning Experience5.5.6.4Proficiency Level5.5.6.5Participant Attrition5.5.6.6Participant Inattention and Attitude5.5.6.7Participant Maturation5.5.6.8Data Collection: Location and Collector5.5.6.9Instrumentation and Test Effect5.5.6.10Equivalence Between Pre- and Posttests5.5.6.11Giving the Goal of the Study Away5.5.6.12Instructions/Questions5.5.7External Validity5.5.7.1Sampling5.5.7.2Random Sampling5.5.7.3Nonrandom Sampling5.5.7.4Representativeness and Generalizability5.5.7.5Collecting Biodata Information5.6Reliability5.6.1Rater Reliability5.6.2Instrument Reliability5.6.2.1Test-Retest5.6.2.2Equivalence of Forms5.6.2.3Internal Consistency5.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NotesSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…6.Designing a Quantitative Study6.1Introduction6.2Research Materials6.3Intact Classes6.4Counterbalancing6.5Research Design Types6.5.1Correlational (Associational) Research6.5.2Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research6.5.2.1Comparison Group Design6.5.2.2Control Group Design6.5.3Measuring the Effect of Treatment6.5.3.1Pretest/Posttest Design6.5.3.2Posttest Only Design6.5.4Repeated Measures Design6.5.5Factorial Design6.5.6Time-Series Design6.5.7One-Shot Designs6.5.8Research Syntheses and Meta-Analyses6.6ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NoteSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…7.Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.1Defining Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.2Gathering Qualitative and Interpretive Data7.2.1Ethnographies7.2.1.1Advantages7.2.1.2Caveats7.2.2Case Studies7.2.2.1Advantages7.2.2.2Caveats7.2.3Interviews7.2.3.1Advantages7.2.3.2Caveats7.2.4Observations7.2.4.1Advantages7.2.4.2Caveats7.2.5Diaries/Journals7.2.5.1Advantages7.2.5.2Caveats7.3Analyzing Qualitative Data7.3.1Credibility, Transferability, Confirmability, and Dependability7.3.2Triangulation7.3.3The Role of Quantification in Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.4ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NoteSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…8.Classroom Research8.1Classroom Research Contexts8.2Common Techniques for Data Collection in Classroom Research8.2.1Observations8.2.1.1Conducting Classroom Observations8.2.1.2Observation Procedures and Coding Schemes8.2.1.3Description of Observation Schemes8.2.1.4Caveats to Using or Modifying Existing Observation Schemes8.3Introspective Methods in Classroom Research8.3.1Uptake Sheets8.3.2Stimulated Recall8.3.3Diary Research in Classroom Contexts8.4Practical Considerations in Classroom Research8.4.1Logistical Issues to Consider When Carrying out Classroom Research8.4.2Logistics8.4.2.1Informed Consent8.4.2.2Debriefing Participants and Facilitators8.4.2.3Ensuring Confidentiality and Minimizing Disruption8.4.2.4Data Segmentation and Coding8.4.2.5Considering the Instructional Setting8.4.2.6Summary of Logistics8.5Purposes and Types of Research Conducted in Classroom Settings8.5.1The Relationship between Instruction and Learning in Second Language Classrooms8.5.2Action Research8.5.2.1Definitions8.5.2.2Theory and Background to Action Research8.5.2.3Action Research in Practice8.5.3Aptitude-Treatment Interaction8.5.4Getting Your Footing in the Literature8.6ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…9.Mixed Methods9.1Introduction9.2What Are Mixed Methods?9.3Why Use Mixed Methods?9.4Types of Mixed-Methods Studies9.4.1 Concurrent Mixed-Methods9.4.2. Sequential Mixed-Methods9.5Conducting a Mixed-Methods Study9.5.1Deciding Whether or Not to Conduct a Mixed-Methods Study9.5.2Planning Phase9.6Analyzing Data from a Mixed-Methods Study9.7Software for Analysis9.8ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…10.Concluding and Reporting Research10.1The Importance of Reporting Research10.2The Final Stages in Reporting Quantitative Research10.2.1The Discussion10.2.2Limitations, Future Research, and Conclusion Sections10.3The Final Stages in Reporting Qualitative Research10.4Reporting Mixed-Methods Research10.5Checklist for Completing Reports of Research10.5.1The Research Problem and Questions10.5.2The Research Hypotheses10.5.3The Audience10.5.4The Abstract10.5.5The Literature Review10.5.6The Design of the Study10.5.7 Logistics10.5.8Participants10.5.9Data Gathering10.5.10Data Analysis10.5.11Conclusions10.5.12References10.5.13Footnotes, Endnotes, Figures, and Tables10.5.13.1Footnotes and Endnotes10.5.13.2Figures10.5.13.3Tables10.5.14Author’s Note/Acknowledgments10.5.15Post-Research Concerns10.5.16Final Touches and Formatting10.6Open Science10.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…GlossaryReferencesSubject Index

Alison Mackey is Professor and Chair of the Department of Linguistics at Georgetown University, USA.Susan M. Gass is University Distinguished Professor Emerita in Second Language Studies at Michigan State University, USA.

• ContentsPreface1.Introduction to Research1.1Research Methods1.2Different Types of Research1.3Ethical Practices1.3.1Informed Consent1.3.1.1Sufficient Information1.3.1.2The Informed Consent Document1.3.1.3Participant Comprehension in Informed Consent1.3.1.4The Language of Informed Consent1.3.1.5Voluntary Participation and Informed Consent1.3.2Child Second Language Learners1.3.3Issues Involved in Collecting Data Online1.3.4WEIRD Populations1.3.5Reporting and Anonymity1.4Institutional Review of Human Participants Research, Compliance, and Problem-Solving1.4.1Purpose of Reviews and IRB Responsibilities1.4.2Why Guidelines to Protect Human Subjects Were Developed1.4.3Development of Research Codes of Ethics1.4.4Preparing a Protocol for the IRB1.4.5General Use of Protocols in Research1.5ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…2.Research Reporting, Research Questions, and Replication2.1What Does a Research Report Look Like?2.1.1Quantitative Reporting2.1.1.1Title Page2.1.1.2Abstract2.1.1.3Introduction2.1.1.4Historical Overview2.1.1.5Major Players in this Research Area, Including Questions, Past Findings, and Controversies2.1.1.6General Goal of the Paper2.1.1.7Research Questions/Hypotheses2.1.1.8Methods Section2.1.1.9Participants2.1.1.10Materials2.1.1.11Procedures2.1.1.12Analysis2.1.1.13Results2.1.1.14Discussion/Conclusion2.1.1.15Notes2.1.1.16References2.1.1.17Appendices2.1.2Qualitative Reporting2.1.3Mixed-Method Reporting2.2Identifying Research Questions2.2.1Feasibility2.2.2Research Questions and Hypotheses2.3Replication2.4ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…3.Common Data Collection Measures3.1Introduction3.2The Significance of Data Collection Measures3.3Researching Formal Models of Language3.3.1Acceptability Judgments3.3.1.1Materials3.3.1.2Procedures3.3.2Gradient Judgments: Magnitude Estimation3.3.3Elicited Imitation3.3.4Interpretation Tasks3.4Psycholinguistics-Based Research3.4.1Sentence Interpretation3.4.2Reaction Time3.4.3Self-Paced Reading3.4.4Eye-Tracking3.4.5Neurolinguistic Elicitation3.5Interaction-Based Research3.5.1Picture Description Tasks3.5.2Spot the Difference3.5.3Jigsaw Tasks3.5.4Consensus Tasks3.5.5Consciousness-Raising Tasks3.5.6Computer-Mediated Research3.6Strategies and Cognitive Processes3.6.1Observations3.6.2Introspective Measures3.6.2.1Stimulated Recall3.6.2.2Think-Alouds or On-Line Tasks3.6.2.3Immediate Recalls3.7Sociolinguistic/Pragmatics-Based Research3.7.1Naturalistic Settings3.7.2Elicited Narratives3.7.2.1Silent Film3.7.2.2Film Strips with Minimal Sound3.7.2.3Picture Tasks3.7.2.4Narrative Inquiry3.7.3Discourse Completion Test (DCT)3.7.4Role Plays3.7.5Video Playback for Interpretation3.8Questionnaires and Surveys3.9Existing Databases3.10Pilot Testing3.11ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NotesSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…4.Coding4.1Preparing Data for Coding4.1.1Transcribing Oral Data4.1.1.1Transcription Conventions4.1.1.2Technology and Transcription4.2Data Coding4.2.1Scales of Measurement4.2.2Coding Nominal Data4.2.3Coding Ordinal Data4.2.4Coding Interval Data4.3Coding Systems4.3.1Common Coding Systems and Categories4.3.1.1T-Units4.3.1.2Suppliance in Obligatory Contexts (SOC)4.3.1.3Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency (CAF)4.3.1.4Qualitative Coding Categories4.3.2Custom-Made Coding Systems4.3.2.1Question Formation4.3.2.2Corrective Feedback4.3.2.3Classroom Interaction4.3.2.4Second Language Writing Research4.3.3Coding Interpretive and Qualitative Data4.4Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1Calculating Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1.1Simple Percentage Agreement4.4.1.2Cohen's Kappa4.4.1.3Additional Measures of Reliability4.4.1.4Good Practice Guidelines for Inter-Rater Reliability4.4.1.5How Data Are Selected for Inter-Rater Reliability Tests4.4.1.6When to Carry out Coding Reliability Checks4.5The Mechanics of Coding4.5.1How Much to Code?4.5.2When to Make Coding Decisions4.6Software for Coding4.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…5.Research Variables, Validity, and Reliability5.1Introduction5.2Hypotheses5.3Variable Types5.3.1Independent and Dependent Variables5.3.2Moderator Variables5.3.3Intervening Variables5.3.4Control Variables5.4Operationalization5.5Validity5.5.1Content Validity5.5.2Face Validity5.5.3Construct Validity5.5.4Criterion-Related Validity5.5.5Predictive Validity5.5.6Internal Validity5.5.6.1Participant Characteristics5.5.6.2Language Background5.5.6.3Language Learning Experience5.5.6.4Proficiency Level5.5.6.5Participant Attrition5.5.6.6Participant Inattention and Attitude5.5.6.7Participant Maturation5.5.6.8Data Collection: Location and Collector5.5.6.9Instrumentation and Test Effect5.5.6.10Equivalence Between Pre- and Posttests5.5.6.11Giving the Goal of the Study Away5.5.6.12Instructions/Questions5.5.7External Validity5.5.7.1Sampling5.5.7.2Random Sampling5.5.7.3Nonrandom Sampling5.5.7.4Representativeness and Generalizability5.5.7.5Collecting Biodata Information5.6Reliability5.6.1Rater Reliability5.6.2Instrument Reliability5.6.2.1Test-Retest5.6.2.2Equivalence of Forms5.6.2.3Internal Consistency5.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NotesSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…6.Designing a Quantitative Study6.1Introduction6.2Research Materials6.3Intact Classes6.4Counterbalancing6.5Research Design Types6.5.1Correlational (Associational) Research6.5.2Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research6.5.2.1Comparison Group Design6.5.2.2Control Group Design6.5.3Measuring the Effect of Treatment6.5.3.1Pretest/Posttest Design6.5.3.2Posttest Only Design6.5.4Repeated Measures Design6.5.5Factorial Design6.5.6Time-Series Design6.5.7One-Shot Designs6.5.8Research Syntheses and Meta-Analyses6.6ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NoteSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…7.Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.1Defining Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.2Gathering Qualitative and Interpretive Data7.2.1Ethnographies7.2.1.1Advantages7.2.1.2Caveats7.2.2Case Studies7.2.2.1Advantages7.2.2.2Caveats7.2.3Interviews7.2.3.1Advantages7.2.3.2Caveats7.2.4Observations7.2.4.1Advantages7.2.4.2Caveats7.2.5Diaries/Journals7.2.5.1Advantages7.2.5.2Caveats7.3Analyzing Qualitative Data7.3.1Credibility, Transferability, Confirmability, and Dependability7.3.2Triangulation7.3.3The Role of Quantification in Qualitative and Interpretive Research7.4ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …NoteSample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…8.Classroom Research8.1Classroom Research Contexts8.2Common Techniques for Data Collection in Classroom Research8.2.1Observations8.2.1.1Conducting Classroom Observations8.2.1.2Observation Procedures and Coding Schemes8.2.1.3Description of Observation Schemes8.2.1.4Caveats to Using or Modifying Existing Observation Schemes8.3Introspective Methods in Classroom Research8.3.1Uptake Sheets8.3.2Stimulated Recall8.3.3Diary Research in Classroom Contexts8.4Practical Considerations in Classroom Research8.4.1Logistical Issues to Consider When Carrying out Classroom Research8.4.2Logistics8.4.2.1Informed Consent8.4.2.2Debriefing Participants and Facilitators8.4.2.3Ensuring Confidentiality and Minimizing Disruption8.4.2.4Data Segmentation and Coding8.4.2.5Considering the Instructional Setting8.4.2.6Summary of Logistics8.5Purposes and Types of Research Conducted in Classroom Settings8.5.1The Relationship between Instruction and Learning in Second Language Classrooms8.5.2Action Research8.5.2.1Definitions8.5.2.2Theory and Background to Action Research8.5.2.3Action Research in Practice8.5.3Aptitude-Treatment Interaction8.5.4Getting Your Footing in the Literature8.6ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…9.Mixed Methods9.1Introduction9.2What Are Mixed Methods?9.3Why Use Mixed Methods?9.4Types of Mixed-Methods Studies9.4.1 Concurrent Mixed-Methods9.4.2. Sequential Mixed-Methods9.5Conducting a Mixed-Methods Study9.5.1Deciding Whether or Not to Conduct a Mixed-Methods Study9.5.2Planning Phase9.6Analyzing Data from a Mixed-Methods Study9.7Software for Analysis9.8ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…10.Concluding and Reporting Research10.1The Importance of Reporting Research10.2The Final Stages in Reporting Quantitative Research10.2.1The Discussion10.2.2Limitations, Future Research, and Conclusion Sections10.3The Final Stages in Reporting Qualitative Research10.4Reporting Mixed-Methods Research10.5Checklist for Completing Reports of Research10.5.1The Research Problem and Questions10.5.2The Research Hypotheses10.5.3The Audience10.5.4The Abstract10.5.5The Literature Review10.5.6The Design of the Study10.5.7 Logistics10.5.8Participants10.5.9Data Gathering10.5.10Data Analysis10.5.11Conclusions10.5.12References10.5.13Footnotes, Endnotes, Figures, and Tables10.5.13.1Footnotes and Endnotes10.5.13.2Figures10.5.13.3Tables10.5.14Author’s Note/Acknowledgments10.5.15Post-Research Concerns10.5.16Final Touches and Formatting10.6Open Science10.7ConclusionPoints to RememberMore to Do and More to Think About …Sample Responses: Time to Think & Time to DoSample Responses: More to Do and More to Think About…GlossaryReferencesSubject Index