Satellite Networking

Professor Zhili Sun, University of Surrey, UKDr Zhili Sun is a Reader in Communications at the Centre for Communication Systems Research (CCSR) at the University of Surrey, UK.He has more than 12 years experience of working in the field since completing his Ph.D. and teaches MSc students modules on satellite communications and data and internet networking as well as industrial short courses e.g. at INT, France.

• List of Figures xix List of Tables xxvAbout the Author xxviiPreface xxixAcknowledgements xxxi1 Introduction 11.1 Applications and Services of Satellite Networks 11.1.1 Roles of Satellite Networks 21.1.2 Network Software and Hardware 41.1.3 Satellite Network Interfaces 41.1.4 Network Services 51.1.5 Applications 51.2 ITU-R Definitions of Satellite Services 51.2.1 Fixed Satellite Service (FSS) 61.2.2 Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) 61.2.3 Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS) 61.2.4 Other Satellite Services 61.3 ITU-T Definitions of Network Services 61.3.1 Interactive Services 71.3.2 Distribution Services 71.4 Internet Services and Applications 81.4.1 World Wide Web (WWW) 81.4.2 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 91.4.3 Telnet 91.4.4 Electronic Mail (email) 101.4.5 Multicast and Content Distribution 101.4.6 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) 101.4.7 Domain Name System (DNS) 111.5 Circuit-switching Network 111.5.1 Connection Set Up 121.5.2 Signalling 131.5.3 Transmission Multiplexing Hierarchy based on FDM 131.5.4 Transmission Multiplexing Hierarchy based on TDM 131.5.5 Space Switching and Time Switching 151.5.6 Coding Gain of Forward Error Correction (FEC) 161.6 Packet-switching Networks 171.6.1 Connection-oriented Approach 181.6.2 Connectionless Approach 191.6.3 Relationship between Circuit-switching and Packet-switching 201.6.4 Considerations of Packet Network Designs 201.6.5 Packet Header and Payload 211.6.6 Complexity and Heterogeneous Networks 211.6.7 Performance of Packet Transmissions 211.6.8 Impact of Bit Level Errors on Packet Level 221.7 OSI/ISO Reference Model 221.7.1 Protocol Terminology 231.7.2 Layering Principle 231.7.3 Functions of the Seven Layers 231.7.4 Fading of the OSI/ISO Reference Model 241.8 The ATM Protocol Reference Model 251.8.1 Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN) 251.8.2 Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) 251.8.3 ATM Technology 251.8.4 Reference Model 261.8.5 Problems: Lack of Available Services and Applications 261.9 Internet Protocols Reference Model 271.9.1 Network Layer: IP Protocol 271.9.2 Network Technologies 271.9.3 Transport Layer: TCP and UDP 281.9.4 Application Layer 281.9.5 QoS and Control on Resources 281.10 Satellite Network 281.10.1 Access Network 291.10.2 Transit Network 291.10.3 Broadcast Network 291.10.4 Space Segment 291.10.5 Ground Segment 311.10.6 Satellite Orbits 311.10.7 Satellite Transmission Frequency Bands 321.11 Characteristics of Satellite Networks 341.11.1 Propagation Delay 341.11.2 Propagation Loss and Power Limited 351.11.3 Orbit Space and Bandwidth Limited for Coverage 351.11.4 Operational Complexity for LEO 351.12 Channel Capacity of Digital Transmissions 351.12.1 The Nyquist Formula for Noiseless Channels 361.12.2 The Shannon Theorem for Noise Channels 361.12.3 Channel Capacity Boundary 361.12.4 The Shannon Power Limit (−1.6 dB) 361.12.5 Shannon Bandwidth Efficiency for Large Eb¨MN0 371.13 Internetworking with Terrestrial Networks 381.13.1 Repeaters at the Physical Layer 381.13.2 Bridges at the Link Layer 381.13.3 Switches at the Physical, Link and Network Layers 391.13.4 Routers for Interconnecting Heterogeneous Networks 391.13.5 Protocol Translation, Stacking and Tunnelling 391.13.6 Quality of Service (QoS) 401.13.7 End-user QoS Class and Requirements 401.13.8 Network Performance 411.13.9 QoS and NP for Satellite Networking 421.14 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) 431.14.1 The DVB Standards 441.14.2 Transmission System 441.14.3 Adaptation to Satellite Transponder Characteristics 451.14.4 Channel Coding 461.14.5 Reed–Solomon (RS) Outer Coding, Interleaving and Framing 471.14.6 Inner Convolutional Coding 481.14.7 Baseband Shaping and Modulation 491.14.8 Error Performance Requirements 501.15 DVB-S Satellite Delivery 501.15.1 MPEG-2 Baseband Processing 511.15.2 Transport Stream (TS) 521.15.3 Service Objectives 521.15.4 Satellite Channel Adaptation 521.15.5 DVB Return Channel over Satellite (DVB-RCS) 531.15.6 TCP/IP over DVB 541.16 DVB Satellite – Second Generation (DVB-S2) 541.16.1 Technology Novelty in the DVB-S2 551.16.2 Transmission System Architecture 561.16.3 Error Performance 581.17 DVB Satellite Services to Handheld Devices (DVB-SH) 591.17.1 Transmission System Architecture 601.17.2 Common Functions for both TDM and OFDM Modes 611.17.3 Functions for Single Carrier (TDM) Mode 621.17.4 Functions for Multi Carrier (OFDM) Mode 651.17.5 DVB-RCS2 691.18 Historical Development of Computer and Data Networks 691.18.1 Dawn of the Computer and Data Communications Age 701.18.2 Development of Local Area Networks (LANs) 701.18.3 Development of WANs and ISO/OSI 701.18.4 Birth of the Internet 701.18.5 Integration of Telephony and Data Networks 701.18.6 Development of Broadband Integrated Networks 711.18.7 The Killer Application WWW and Internet Evolutions 711.19 Historical Development of Satellite Communications 711.19.1 Start of Satellite and Space Eras 711.19.2 Early Satellite Communications: TV and Telephony 721.19.3 Development of Satellite Digital Transmission 721.19.4 Development of Direct-to-Home (DTH) Broadcast 721.19.5 Development of Satellite Maritime Communications 721.19.6 Satellite Communications in Regions and Countries 721.19.7 Satellite Broadband Networks and Mobile Networks 731.19.8 Internet over Satellite Networks 731.20 Convergence of Network Technologies and Protocols 731.20.1 Convergence of Services and Applications in User Terminals 731.20.2 Convergence of Network Technologies 741.20.3 Convergence of Network Protocols 751.20.4 Satellite Network Evolution 75Further Readings 77Exercises 782 Satellite Orbits and Networking Concepts 792.1 Laws of Physics 802.1.1 Kepler’s Three Laws 802.1.2 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion and The Universal Law of Gravity 802.1.3 Kepler’s First Law: Satellite Orbits 812.1.4 Kepler’s Second Law: Area Swept by a Satellite Vector 832.1.5 Kepler’s Third Law: Orbit Period 832.1.6 Satellite Velocity 842.2 Satellite Orbit Parameters 852.2.1 Semi-Major Axis (a) 852.2.2 Eccentricity (e) 852.2.3 Inclination of Orbit (i) 852.2.4 Right Ascension of the Node (Ω) and Argument of Perigee (𝜔) 862.3 Useful Orbits 872.3.1 Geosynchronous Earth Orbits 872.3.2 Geostationary Earth Orbits (GEOs) 872.3.3 High Elliptical Orbits (HEOs) 882.3.4 Notations of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite Constellations 882.3.5 Orbital Perturbations 892.3.6 Satellite Altitude and Coverage 892.3.7 Antenna Gain and Beam-width Angle 902.3.8 Coverage Calculations 912.3.9 Distance and Propagation Delay from Earth Station to Satellite 922.4 Satellite Link Characteristics and Modulations for Transmissions 932.4.1 Satellite Link Characteristics 932.4.2 Modulation Techniques 952.4.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Schemes for Satellite Transmissions 962.4.4 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) 962.4.5 Quadrature PSK (QPSK) 972.4.6 Gaussian-filtered Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) 972.4.7 Bit Error Rate (BER): the Quality Parameter of Modulation Schemes 982.4.8 Satellite Networking in the Physical Layer 1002.5 Forward Error Correction (FEC) 1012.5.1 Linear Block Codes 1012.5.2 Cyclic Codes 1022.5.3 Trellis Coding and Convolutional Codes 1022.5.4 Concatenated Codes 1032.5.5 Turbo Codes 1032.5.6 Performance of FEC 1042.6 Multiple Access Techniques 1052.6.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 1062.6.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 1062.6.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 1072.6.4 Comparison of FDMA, TDMA and CDMA 1082.7 Bandwidth Allocation 1082.7.1 Fixed Assignment Access 1092.7.2 Demand Assignment 1092.7.3 Random Access 1092.8 Satellite Networking Issues 1102.8.1 Single-hop Satellite Connections 1102.8.2 Multi-hop Satellite Connections 1102.8.3 Inter-satellite Links (ISL) 1112.8.4 Handovers 1122.8.5 Satellite Intra-beam and Inter-beam Handovers 1142.8.6 Earth Fixed Coverage versus Satellite Fixed Coverage 1142.8.7 Routing within a Constellation of Satellite Networks 1152.8.8 Internetworking 1162.8.9 Satellite Availability and Diversity 116Further Readings 118Exercises 1183 B-ISDN ATM and Internet Protocols 1193.1 ATM Protocol and Fundamental Concepts 1193.1.1 Packetisation Delay 1213.1.2 Queuing Delay 1213.1.3 Compromise Solution Between North America and Europe 1223.2 ATM Layer 1233.2.1 The GFC Field 1233.2.2 The VPI and VCI Fields 1233.2.3 The CLP Field 1253.2.4 The PT Field 1263.2.5 The HEC Field 1263.3 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) 1263.3.1 AAL1 for Class A 1273.3.2 AAL2 for Class B 1293.3.3 AAL3/4 for Classes C and D 1293.3.4 AAL5 for Internet Protocol 1303.4 The Physical Layer 1313.4.1 The Physical Medium (PM) Sublayers 1313.4.2 The Transmission Convergence (TC) Sublayer 1313.4.3 ATM Cell Transmissions 1323.5 ATM Interfaces and ATM Networking 1343.5.1 User–Network Access 1343.5.2 Network Node Interconnections 1353.5.3 ATM DXI 1363.5.4 B-ICI 1363.5.5 Permanent Virtual Connections versus Switched Virtual Connections 1363.5.6 ATM Signalling 1373.5.7 ATM Addressing 1373.5.8 Address Registration 1393.6 Network Traffic, QoS and Performance Issues 1393.6.1 Traffic Descriptors 1403.6.2 QoS Parameters 1403.6.3 Performance Issues 1403.7 Network Resource Management 1413.7.1 Connection Admission Control (CAC) 1423.7.2 UPC and NPC 1423.7.3 Priority Control and Congestion Control 1423.7.4 Traffic Shaping 1433.7.5 Generic Cell Rate Algorithm (GCRA) 1433.7.6 Leaky Bucket Algorithm (LBA) 1433.7.7 Virtual Scheduling Algorithm (VSA) 1463.8 Internet Protocols 1463.8.1 Internet Networking Basics 1473.8.2 Protocol Hierarchies 1473.8.3 Connectionless Network Layer 1483.8.4 The IP Packet Format 1483.8.5 IP Address 1503.8.6 Mapping Between Internet and Physical Network Addresses 1513.8.7 ARP, RARP and HDCP 1523.9 Internet Routing Protocols 1523.9.1 The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) 1523.9.2 The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol (EGRP) 1533.10 Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP 1533.10.1 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 1533.10.2 The TCP Segment Header Format 1543.10.3 Connection Set Up and Data Transmission 1553.10.4 Congestion and Flow Control 1563.10.5 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 1573.11 IP and ATM Internetworking 1583.11.1 Packet Encapsulation 1593.11.2 IP and ATM Address Resolution 160Further Readings 161Exercises 1614 Satellite Internetworking with Terrestrial Networks 1634.1 Networking Concepts 1634.2 Networking Terminology 1654.2.1 Private Network 1654.2.2 Public Network 1654.2.3 Quality Aspects of Telephony Services 1664.2.4 IP Based Network 1664.3 Network Elements and Connections 1674.3.1 Network Terminals 1674.3.2 Network Nodes 1684.3.3 Network Connections 1684.3.4 End-to-End Paths 1694.3.5 Reference Configurations 1694.4 Network Traffic and Signalling 1704.4.1 User Traffic and Network Services 1704.4.2 Signalling Systems and Signalling Traffic 1714.4.3 In-band Signalling 1724.4.4 Out-of-Band Signalling 1734.4.5 Associated and Disassociated Channel Signalling 1734.4.6 Network Management 1744.4.7 Network Operation Systems and Mediation Functions 1754.5 Access and Transit Transmission Networks 1764.5.1 Analogue Telephony Networks 1774.5.2 Telephony Network Traffic Engineering Concept 1774.5.3 Access to Satellite Networks in the Frequency Domain 1784.5.4 On-Board Circuit Switching 1794.6 Digital Telephony Networks 1804.6.1 Digital Multiplexing Hierarchy 1804.6.2 Satellite Digital Transmission and On-Board Switching 1814.6.3 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) 1814.6.4 Limitations of PDH 1814.7 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) 1824.7.1 Development of SDH 1834.7.2 The SDH Standards 1834.7.3 Mapping from PDH to SDH 1844.7.4 The Benefits of SDH 1854.7.5 Synchronous Operation 1854.7.6 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 1874.7.7 SDH Over Satellite – The Intelsat Scenarios 1884.8 Hypothetical References for Satellite Networks 1894.8.1 ITU-T Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX) 1894.8.2 ITU-R Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP) for Satellite 1904.8.3 Performance Objectives 1914.9 Satellites and MANET 1914.9.1 Networking Scenarios 1934.10 Interworking with Heterogeneous Networks 1974.10.1 Services 1974.10.2 Addressing 1984.10.3 Routing 1984.10.4 Evolution 198Further Readings 199Exercises 2005 B-ISDN ATM over Satellite Networks 2015.1 Background 2015.1.1 Networking Issues 2025.1.2 Satellite Services in the B-ISDN Networking Environment 2025.2 Design Issues of Satellite B-ISDN ATM Systems 2045.2.1 Propagation Delay 2045.2.2 Attenuation and Constraints 2055.3 The GEO Satellite B-ISDN ATM Networking Architecture 2065.3.1 Ground Segment 2065.3.2 Space Segment 2075.3.3 Satellite Bandwidth Resource Management 2075.3.4 Connection Admission Control (CAC) 2095.3.5 Network Policing Functions 2095.3.6 Reactive Congestion Control 2095.4 Advanced Satellite B-ISDN ATM Networks 2105.4.1 Radio Access Layer 2105.4.2 On-Board Processing (OBP) Characteristics 2115.4.3 B-ISDN ATM On-Board Switch 2115.4.4 Multibeam Satellites 2145.4.5 LEO/MEO Satellite Constellations 2155.4.6 Inter-Satellite Links (ISL) 2155.4.7 Mobility Management 2165.4.8 Use of Higher Frequency Spectrum 2165.5 B-ISDN ATM Performance 2175.5.1 Layered Model of Performance for B-ISDN 2175.5.2 Network Performance Parameters 2185.5.3 Impact of Satellite Burst Errors on the ATM Layer 2205.5.4 Impact of Burst Errors on AAL Protocols 2215.5.5 Error Control Mechanisms 2215.5.6 Enhancement Techniques for Broadband Satellite Networks 2225.6 Evolution of Broadband Satellite Systems 224Further Readings 225Exercises 2256 Internet Protocol (IP) over Satellite Networks 2276.1 Different Viewpoints of Satellite Networking 2276.1.1 Protocol-centric Viewpoint of Satellite IP Network 2286.1.2 Satellite-centric Viewpoint of Global Networks and the Internet 2296.1.3 Network-centric Viewpoint of Satellite Networks 2306.2 IP Packet Encapsulation 2316.2.1 Basic Concepts 2316.2.2 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) Protocol 2326.2.3 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) 2326.2.4 Media Access Control 2336.2.5 IP Over Satellite 2336.3 Satellite IP Networking 2336.3.1 Routing On-Board Satellites 2356.3.2 IP Mobility in Satellite Networks 2356.3.3 Address Resolution 2376.4 IP Multicast Over Satellite 2376.4.1 IP Multicast Concepts 2386.4.2 IP Multicast Addressing 2396.4.3 Multicast Group Management 2396.4.4 IP Multicast Routing 2406.4.5 IP Multicast Scope 2416.4.6 IGMP Behaviour in Satellite Environments 2416.4.7 Multicast Routing Protocols in Satellite Environments 2436.4.8 Reliable Multicast Protocols Over Satellites 2436.5 Basic Network Security Mechanisms 2456.5.1 Security Approaches 2456.5.2 Single-direction Hashing Functions 2466.5.3 Symmetrical Codes (With Secret Keys) 2466.5.4 Asymmetrical Codes (With Public/Private Keys) 2476.6 Satellite Networking Security 2486.6.1 IP Security (IPsec) 2486.6.2 Firewall and VPN 2496.6.3 IP Multicast Security 2506.7 Internet Quality of Service (IP QoS) 2506.7.1 Layered Model of Performance for IP Service 2516.7.2 IP Packet Transfer Performance Parameters 2526.7.3 IP Network Performance Objectives for QoS Classes 2536.7.4 Guidance on IP QoS Class Usage 2546.8 Integrated Services (Intserv) Architectures for QoS 2546.8.1 Integrated Services Architecture (ISA) Principles 2556.8.2 Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) 2566.8.3 Intserv Service Classes 2576.9 Differentiated Services (Diffserv) for QoS 2586.9.1 Diffserv Architecture 2586.9.2 Traffic Classification 2606.9.3 Traffic Conditioning 2616.9.4 Diffserv Per Hop Behaviour (PHB) 2616.9.5 Supporting Intserv Across the Satellite Network Diffserv Domain 2636.10 DVB Over Satellite 2646.10.1 MPEG-2 Source Coding and Multiplexing DVB-S Streams 2656.10.2 DVB-S System 2666.10.3 DVB Security 2686.10.4 Conditional Access in DVB-S 2686.10.5 DVB-RCS Interactive Service and IP over DVB 2706.10.6 DVB-RCS Security 2716.10.7 IP Multicast Security 2716.11 DVB-S and DVB-RCS Network Architecture 2726.11.1 On-Board Processor (OBP) 2736.11.2 Management Station (MS) 2746.11.3 Regenerative Satellite Gateway (RSGW) 2746.11.4 Return Channel Satellite Terminal (RCST) 2756.11.5 Network Interface 2756.11.6 Network System Characteristics 2766.12 Network Protocol Stack Architecture 2766.13 The Physical Layer (PHY) 2776.13.1 Up-link (DVB-RCS Compliant) 2776.13.2 Time Slots 2786.13.3 Frames 2786.13.4 Superframes 2806.13.5 Carrier Type and Frame Composition 2806.13.6 Uplink MF-TDMA Channel Frequency Plan 2816.13.7 Downlink (DVB-S Compliant) 2826.13.8 RCS Terminal (RCST) Transmission 2836.14 Satellite MAC (SMAC) Layer 2846.14.1 Transport Mechanisms 2846.14.2 MPEG-2, DVB-S and DVB-RCS Tables 2856.15 Multi Protocol Encapsulation (MPE) 2886.16 Satellite Link Control Layer 2906.16.1 Session Control 2906.16.2 Resource Control 2936.16.3 Capacity Request Categories 2946.16.4 Connection Control 2946.17 Quality of Service (QoS) 2976.17.1 Traffic Classes 2976.17.2 Flow Classification 2986.17.3 Link Layer Connection QoS Adaptation 2986.18 Network Layer 2996.18.1 IP Routing and Address Resolution 2996.18.2 IP Multicast – Star and Mesh Configurations 301Further Readings 303Exercises 3057 Impact of Satellite Networks on Transport Layer Protocols 3077.1 Introduction 3087.1.1 Application Characteristics 3087.1.2 Client and Server Host Parameters 3097.1.3 Satellite Network Configurations 3097.1.4 TCP and Satellite Channel Characteristics 3107.1.5 TCP Flow Control, Congestion Control and Error Recovery 3117.2 TCP Performance Analysis 3137.2.1 First TCP Segment Transmission 3137.2.2 TCP Transmission in the Slow-start Stage 3147.2.3 TCP Transmission in the Congestion Avoidance Stage 3147.3 Slow-start Enhancement for Satellite Networks 3157.3.1 TCP for Transactions 3167.3.2 Slow-start and Delayed Acknowledgement (ACK) 3167.3.3 Larger Initial Window 3177.3.4 Terminating Slow-start 3177.4 Loss Recovery Enhancement 3187.4.1 Fast Retransmission and Fast Recovery 3187.4.2 Selective Acknowledgement (SACK) 3197.4.3 SACK Based Enhancement Mechanisms 3197.4.4 ACK Congestion Control 3207.4.5 ACK Filtering 3207.4.6 Explicit Congestion Notification 3217.4.7 Detecting Corruption Loss 3227.4.8 Congestion Avoidance Enhancement Policy 3227.5 Enhancements for Satellite Networks Using Interruptive Mechanisms 3237.5.1 TCP Spoofing 3237.5.2 Cascading TCP or Split TCP 3247.5.3 Other Considerations for Satellite Networking 3257.6 Impacts on Applications 3257.6.1 Bulk Data Transfer 3257.6.2 Interactive Applications 3267.6.3 Distributed Caching for Internet Services and Applications 3267.6.4 Web Caching in Satellite Networks 3277.7 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) 3287.7.1 Basics of RTP 3287.7.2 RTP Control Protocol (RTCP) 3317.7.3 Sender Report (SR) Packets 3327.7.4 Receiver Report (RR) Packets 3337.7.5 Source Description (SDES) RTCP Packet 3337.7.6 SAP and SIP Protocols for Session Initiations 3347.7.7 Session Directory Service (SDS) 3367.8 Voice over IP 3367.8.1 Gateway Decomposition 3367.8.2 Protocols 3367.8.3 Gatekeepers 3377.8.4 Multimedia Conferencing (MMC) 3377.8.5 Conference Control 337Further Readings 337Exercises 3388 Next Generation Internet (NGI) over Satellite 3418.1 Introduction 3428.2 New Services and Applications 3428.2.1 Internet Integrated Services 3438.2.2 Elastic and Inelastic Traffic 3438.2.3 QoS Provision and Network Performance 3448.3 Traffic Modelling and Characterisation 3448.3.1 Traffic Engineering Techniques 3458.3.2 Traffic Modelling 3458.3.3 Statistical Methods for Traffic Modelling 3468.3.4 Renewal Models 3468.3.5 Markov Models 3468.3.6 Fluid Models 3478.3.7 Auto-regressive and Moving Average Models 3478.3.8 Self-similar Models 3488.4 The Nature of Internet Traffic 3488.4.1 World Wide Web (WWW) 3488.4.2 Pareto Distribution Model for Self-similar Traffic 3508.4.3 Fractional Brownian Motion (FBM) Process 3508.4.4 Consideration of User Behaviour in Traffic Modelling 3518.4.5 Voice Traffic Modelling 3528.4.6 On-off Model for Voice Traffic 3548.4.7 Video Traffic Modelling 3558.4.8 Multi-layer Modelling for WWW Traffic 3568.5 Traffic Engineering 3578.5.1 Traffic Engineering Principles 3588.5.2 Internet Traffic Engineering 3608.6 Multi-protocol Label Switching (MPLS) 3618.6.1 MPLS Forwarding Paradigm 3628.6.2 MPLS Basic Operation 3638.6.3 MPLS and Diffserv Interworking 3668.6.4 MPLS and ATM Interworking 3678.6.5 MPLS with Traffic Engineering (MPLS-TE) 3688.7 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) 3698.7.1 Basics of Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) 3698.7.2 IPv6 Addressing 3718.7.3 IPv6 Networks over Satellites 3748.7.4 IPv6 Transitions 3758.7.5 IPv6 Tunnelling Through Satellite Networks 3758.7.6 The 6to4 Translation via Satellite Networks 3768.7.7 Issues with 6to4 3778.7.8 Future Development of Satellite Networking 378Further Readings 380Exercises 381Index 383