Edited by James Hawdon, Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for Peace Studies and Violence Prevention,Department of Sociology, Virginia Tech and Matthew Costello, Associate Professor of Sociology, Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Criminal Justice, Clemson University, US

• Contents1 Introduction: hate and hate crimes in society 1James Hawdon and Matthew CostelloPART I MEASURING HATE CRIMES AND THEIR EFFECTS2 The definitional and methodological challenges of studying hate crimes:evaluating official statistics, victimization, and self-report data 15Joseph H. Michalski3 Hate-motivated behavior: measurement, antecedents, and futureconsiderations 36Andre Kehn, Mariah L. Sorby, Madison Adrian, and Lauren Stornelli4 The individual impacts of hate crime victimization 59Brendan Lantz, Marin R. Wenger, and Jack M. MillsPART II VARIATION IN TYPES OF HATE CRIMES5 Acts of bias-related violence against LGBTQ+ persons and theLGBTQ+ community: prevalence, psychosocial consequences,interventions, and recommendations 83Michael L. Dolezal, Heather Littleton, Stephanie Lim, and Katie Edwards6 Anti-Muslim hate crimes in the United States and Canada: visibility andthe minority-group threat thesis 101Joseph H. Michalski7 A reflection on anti-Asian hate in America: from early immigration toCOVID-19 125Matthew Costello and Holly Verity Williams8 Anti-immigrant sentiment and hate: the past as prologue 142Salvatore J. Restifo and Amie Bostic9 Hate at school: how often it occurs and how to prevent it 163Janice Iwama, Jazmine Talley, and Jack McDevitt10 Capturing racial threat: measuring anti-Black hate crimes duringObama’s presidential ascent 180Jonathan A. LLoyd and Ashley V. Reichelmann11 Hate crime investigations without identified victims 199Lisa M. Jones, Kimberly J. Mitchell, Heather A. Turner,Gina Zwerling Kahn, and Leanne GastPART III HATE CRIMES IN COUNTRIES AROUND THE GLOBE12 Understanding the issue of hate crimes in Pakistan: concepts andprevalence 217Nizar Ahmad, Jun Sung Hong, and Paghunda Bibi13 Cyberhate and young people in the French context 232Catherine Blaya and Liliia Korol14 From online hate speech to offline hate crime? Testing individual-levelassociations with a nationally representative sample of adolescentsaged 15–17 252Markus Kaakinen, Teemu Vauhkonen, Janne Vepsäläinen, andPekka Räsänen15 Dialing down hatred: an online pilot project to test counter-narrativeeffectiveness among far-right-sympathetic audiences in the UK 265William AllchornPART IV HATE CRIME AND ITS COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP WITHSTATE ACTORS: BROADENING THE PERSPECTIVE16 Fighting ecoterrorism or fighting dissent: are state and corporate actorsperpetrators of hate crimes? 290Robert Todd Perdue17 Ecosystems of Hate: understanding the relationship between terrorism,hate crime, and hate speech 303Matteo Vergani and Jade Hutchinson18 The state’s role in hate: understanding hate crime throughout US history 322James Hawdon

Edited by James Hawdon, Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for Peace Studies and Violence Prevention,Department of Sociology, Virginia Tech and Matthew Costello, Associate Professor of Sociology, Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Criminal Justice, Clemson University, US

• Contents1 Introduction: hate and hate crimes in society 1James Hawdon and Matthew CostelloPART I MEASURING HATE CRIMES AND THEIR EFFECTS2 The definitional and methodological challenges of studying hate crimes:evaluating official statistics, victimization, and self-report data 15Joseph H. Michalski3 Hate-motivated behavior: measurement, antecedents, and futureconsiderations 36Andre Kehn, Mariah L. Sorby, Madison Adrian, and Lauren Stornelli4 The individual impacts of hate crime victimization 59Brendan Lantz, Marin R. Wenger, and Jack M. MillsPART II VARIATION IN TYPES OF HATE CRIMES5 Acts of bias-related violence against LGBTQ+ persons and theLGBTQ+ community: prevalence, psychosocial consequences,interventions, and recommendations 83Michael L. Dolezal, Heather Littleton, Stephanie Lim, and Katie Edwards6 Anti-Muslim hate crimes in the United States and Canada: visibility andthe minority-group threat thesis 101Joseph H. Michalski7 A reflection on anti-Asian hate in America: from early immigration toCOVID-19 125Matthew Costello and Holly Verity Williams8 Anti-immigrant sentiment and hate: the past as prologue 142Salvatore J. Restifo and Amie Bostic9 Hate at school: how often it occurs and how to prevent it 163Janice Iwama, Jazmine Talley, and Jack McDevitt10 Capturing racial threat: measuring anti-Black hate crimes duringObama’s presidential ascent 180Jonathan A. LLoyd and Ashley V. Reichelmann11 Hate crime investigations without identified victims 199Lisa M. Jones, Kimberly J. Mitchell, Heather A. Turner,Gina Zwerling Kahn, and Leanne GastPART III HATE CRIMES IN COUNTRIES AROUND THE GLOBE12 Understanding the issue of hate crimes in Pakistan: concepts andprevalence 217Nizar Ahmad, Jun Sung Hong, and Paghunda Bibi13 Cyberhate and young people in the French context 232Catherine Blaya and Liliia Korol14 From online hate speech to offline hate crime? Testing individual-levelassociations with a nationally representative sample of adolescentsaged 15–17 252Markus Kaakinen, Teemu Vauhkonen, Janne Vepsäläinen, andPekka Räsänen15 Dialing down hatred: an online pilot project to test counter-narrativeeffectiveness among far-right-sympathetic audiences in the UK 265William AllchornPART IV HATE CRIME AND ITS COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP WITHSTATE ACTORS: BROADENING THE PERSPECTIVE16 Fighting ecoterrorism or fighting dissent: are state and corporate actorsperpetrators of hate crimes? 290Robert Todd Perdue17 Ecosystems of Hate: understanding the relationship between terrorism,hate crime, and hate speech 303Matteo Vergani and Jade Hutchinson18 The state’s role in hate: understanding hate crime throughout US history 322James Hawdon

Edited by James Hawdon, Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for Peace Studies and Violence Prevention,Department of Sociology, Virginia Tech and Matthew Costello, Associate Professor of Sociology, Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Criminal Justice, Clemson University, US

• Contents1 Introduction: hate and hate crimes in society 1James Hawdon and Matthew CostelloPART I MEASURING HATE CRIMES AND THEIR EFFECTS2 The definitional and methodological challenges of studying hate crimes:evaluating official statistics, victimization, and self-report data 15Joseph H. Michalski3 Hate-motivated behavior: measurement, antecedents, and futureconsiderations 36Andre Kehn, Mariah L. Sorby, Madison Adrian, and Lauren Stornelli4 The individual impacts of hate crime victimization 59Brendan Lantz, Marin R. Wenger, and Jack M. MillsPART II VARIATION IN TYPES OF HATE CRIMES5 Acts of bias-related violence against LGBTQ+ persons and theLGBTQ+ community: prevalence, psychosocial consequences,interventions, and recommendations 83Michael L. Dolezal, Heather Littleton, Stephanie Lim, and Katie Edwards6 Anti-Muslim hate crimes in the United States and Canada: visibility andthe minority-group threat thesis 101Joseph H. Michalski7 A reflection on anti-Asian hate in America: from early immigration toCOVID-19 125Matthew Costello and Holly Verity Williams8 Anti-immigrant sentiment and hate: the past as prologue 142Salvatore J. Restifo and Amie Bostic9 Hate at school: how often it occurs and how to prevent it 163Janice Iwama, Jazmine Talley, and Jack McDevitt10 Capturing racial threat: measuring anti-Black hate crimes duringObama’s presidential ascent 180Jonathan A. LLoyd and Ashley V. Reichelmann11 Hate crime investigations without identified victims 199Lisa M. Jones, Kimberly J. Mitchell, Heather A. Turner,Gina Zwerling Kahn, and Leanne GastPART III HATE CRIMES IN COUNTRIES AROUND THE GLOBE12 Understanding the issue of hate crimes in Pakistan: concepts andprevalence 217Nizar Ahmad, Jun Sung Hong, and Paghunda Bibi13 Cyberhate and young people in the French context 232Catherine Blaya and Liliia Korol14 From online hate speech to offline hate crime? Testing individual-levelassociations with a nationally representative sample of adolescentsaged 15–17 252Markus Kaakinen, Teemu Vauhkonen, Janne Vepsäläinen, andPekka Räsänen15 Dialing down hatred: an online pilot project to test counter-narrativeeffectiveness among far-right-sympathetic audiences in the UK 265William AllchornPART IV HATE CRIME AND ITS COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP WITHSTATE ACTORS: BROADENING THE PERSPECTIVE16 Fighting ecoterrorism or fighting dissent: are state and corporate actorsperpetrators of hate crimes? 290Robert Todd Perdue17 Ecosystems of Hate: understanding the relationship between terrorism,hate crime, and hate speech 303Matteo Vergani and Jade Hutchinson18 The state’s role in hate: understanding hate crime throughout US history 322James Hawdon