Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems

Gilbert M. Masters received his PhD in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University. He is Professor Emeritus in the Atmosphere/Energy Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Stanford, where he has taught courses for over three decades on energy and the environment. Kevin F. Hsu is a AAAS Science & Technology Policy Fellow, with international experience in energy and climate planning. He researches infrastructure and climate resilience at MIT, and has taught sustainability and design classes at Stanford University.

• About the Authors xv1 The US Electric Power Industry 11.1 Electromagnetism: The Technology Behind Electric Power 21.2 The Early Battle Between Edison and Westinghouse 31.3 The Regulatory Side of Electric Utilities 51.3.1 The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 61.3.2 The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 71.3.3 Utilities and Nonutility Generators 81.3.4 Opening the Grid to NUGs 91.3.5 The Emergence of Competitive Markets 111.4 Electricity Infrastructure: The Grid 151.4.1 The North American Electricity Grid 171.4.2 Balancing Electricity Supply and Demand 181.4.3 Grid Stability 231.4.4 Industry Statistics 271.5 Electric Power Infrastructure: Generation 321.5.1 Basic Steam Power Plants 331.5.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants 341.5.3 Gas Turbines 381.5.4 Combined-Cycle Power Plants 391.5.5 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants (IGCC) 401.5.6 Nuclear Power 421.6 Financial Aspects of Conventional Power Plants 461.6.1 Annualized Fixed Costs 461.6.2 The Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) 481.6.3 Screening Curves 511.6.4 Load Duration Curves 521.6.5 Including the Impact of Carbon Costs and Other Externalities 561.7 Summary 58Problems 58References 632 Basic Electric and Magnetic Circuits 692.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits 692.2 Definitions of Key Electrical Quantities 702.2.1 Charge 702.2.2 Current 712.2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 732.2.4 Voltage 742.2.5 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 752.2.6 Power 762.2.7 Energy 762.2.8 Summary of Principal Electrical Quantities 772.3 Idealized Voltage and Current Sources 772.3.1 Ideal Voltage Source 782.3.2 Ideal Current Source 792.4 Electrical Resistance 792.4.1 Ohm’s Law 792.4.2 Resistors in Series 802.4.3 Resistors in Parallel 812.4.4 The Voltage Divider 832.4.5 Wire Resistance 852.5 Capacitance 902.6 Magnetic Circuits 932.6.1 Electromagnetism 932.6.2 Magnetic Circuits 942.7 Inductance 982.7.1 Physics of Inductors 982.7.2 Circuit Relationships for Inductors 1002.8 Transformers 1042.8.1 Ideal Transformers 1042.8.2 Magnetization Losses 108Problems 1123 Fundamentals of Electric Power 1173.1 Effective Values of Voltage and Current 1173.2 Idealized Components Subjected to Sinusoidal Voltages 1213.2.1 Ideal Resistors 1213.2.2 Idealized Capacitors 1233.2.3 Idealized Inductors 1263.2.4 Impedance 1283.3 Power Factor 1323.3.1 The Power Triangle 1343.3.2 Power Factor Correction 1353.4 Three-Wire, Single-Phase Residential Wiring 1383.5 Three-Phase Systems 1413.5.1 Balanced, Wye-Connected Systems 1413.5.2 Delta-Connected, Three-Phase Systems 1483.6 Synchronous Generators 1493.6.1 The Rotating Magnetic Field 1513.6.2 Phasor Model of a Synchronous Generator 1533.7 Transmission and Distribution 1553.7.1 Resistive Losses in T&D 1563.7.2 Importance of Reactive Power Q in T&D Systems 1593.7.3 Impacts of P and Q on Line Voltage Drop 1613.8 Power Quality 1643.8.1 Introduction to Harmonics 1653.8.2 Total Harmonic Distortion 1693.8.3 Harmonics and Overloaded Neutrals 1693.8.4 Harmonics in Transformers 1723.9 Power Electronics 1733.9.1 AC-to-DC Conversion 1733.9.2 DC-to-DC Conversions 1763.9.3 DC-to-AC Inverters 1823.10 Back-To-Back Voltage-Source Converter 184Problems 185References 1924 The Solar Resource 1934.1 The Solar Spectrum 1934.2 The Earth’s Orbit 1974.3 Altitude Angle of the Sun at Solar Noon 2004.4 Solar Position at Any Time of Day 2034.5 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading Analysis 2074.6 Shading Analysis Using Shadow Diagrams 2104.7 Solar Time and Civil (Clock) Time 2134.8 Sunrise and Sunset 2164.9 Clear-Sky Direct-Beam Radiation 2194.10 Total Clear-Sky Insolation on a Collecting Surface 2234.10.1 Direct Beam Radiation 2234.10.2 Diffuse Radiation 2254.10.3 Reflected Radiation 2274.10.4 Tracking Systems 2294.11 Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation 2374.12 Solar Radiation Measurements 2404.13 Solar Insolation Under Normal Skies 2454.13.1 TMY Insolation on a Solar Collector 2454.14 Average Monthly Insolation 248Problems 256References 2615 Photovoltaic Materials and Electrical Characteristics 2635.1 Introduction 2635.2 Basic Semiconductor Physics 2665.2.1 The Band-Gap Energy 2675.2.2 Band-Gap Impact on PV Efficiency 2715.2.3 The p–n Junction 2745.2.4 The p–n Junction Diode 2775.2.5 A Generic PV Cell 2795.3 PV Materials 2805.3.1 Crystalline Silicon 2805.3.2 Amorphous Silicon 2845.3.3 Gallium Arsenide 2865.3.4 Cadmium Telluride 2875.3.5 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) 2885.3.6 Emerging PVs 2895.4 Equivalent Circuits for PV Cells 2905.4.1 The Simplest Equivalent Circuit 2915.4.2 A More Accurate Equivalent Circuit for a PV Cell 2945.5 From Cells to Modules to Arrays 2985.5.1 From Cells to a Module 2995.5.2 From Modules to Arrays 3015.6 The PV I–V Curve Under Standard Test Conditions 3025.7 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on I–V Curves 3055.8 Shading Impacts on I–V Curves 3075.8.1 Physics of Shading 3085.8.2 Bypass Diodes and Blocking Diodes for Shade Mitigation 3125.9 Maximum Power Point Trackers 3155.9.1 The Buck–Boost Converter 3155.9.2 MPPT Controllers 319Problems 322References 3286 Photovoltaic Systems 3316.1 Introduction 3316.2 Physical Components in a Behind-the-Meter, Grid-Connected System 3316.2.1 Microinverters 3346.2.2 Using Space Strategically: Securing Solar Panels with Racking and Mounting Systems 3366.3 Predicting Performance 3396.3.1 Non Temperature-Related PV Power Derating 3406.3.2 Temperature-Related PV Derating 3456.3.3 The “Peak-Hours” Approach to Estimate PV Performance 3476.3.4 Normalized Energy Production Estimates 3506.3.5 Capacity Factors for PV Grid-Connected Systems 3526.3.6 Practical Design Considerations 3536.3.7 Codes and Requirements 3566.4 PV System Economics 3576.4.1 Net Metering and Feed-in Tariffs 3576.4.2 PV System Costs 3596.4.3 Amortizing Costs 3626.4.4 Cash Flow Analysis 3676.4.5 Residential Rate Structures 3696.4.6 Commercial and Industrial Rate Structures 3726.4.7 Economics of PV Systems on Commercial Buildings 3746.4.8 Power Purchase Agreements 3756.4.9 Utility-Scale PVs 3766.5 Summary of System Design for Solar PV on Buildings 378Problems 380References 3867 Wind Power Systems 3897.1 Historical Development of Wind Power 3897.2 Wind Turbine Technology: Rotors 3957.3 Wind Turbine Technology: Generators 3987.3.1 Fixed-Speed Synchronous Generators 3997.3.2 The Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator 4007.3.3 The Doubly Fed Induction Generator 4027.3.4 Variable-Speed Synchronous Generators 4037.4 Power in the Wind 4057.4.1 Temperature and Altitude Correction for Air Density 4077.4.2 Impact of Tower Height 4107.5 Wind Turbine Power Curves 4137.5.1 The Betz Limit 4137.5.2 Idealized Wind Turbine Power Curve 4177.5.3 Real Power Curves 4187.5.4 IEC Wind Turbine Classifications 4227.5.5 Measuring the Wind 4237.6 Average Power in the Wind 4247.6.1 Discrete Wind Histogram 4247.6.2 Wind Power Probability Density Functions 4287.6.3 Weibull and Rayleigh Statistics 4297.6.4 Average Power in the Wind with Rayleigh Statistics 4317.6.5 Wind Power Maps and Classifications 4337.7 Estimating Wind Turbine Energy Production 4357.7.1 Wind Speed Cumulative Distribution Function 4357.7.2 Using Real Power Curves with Weibull Statistics 4397.7.3 A Simple Way to Estimate Capacity Factors 4457.8 Wind Farms 4507.8.1 Onshore Wind Power Potential 4507.8.2 Curtailment and Transmission 4587.8.3 Offshore Wind Farms 4587.9 Wind Turbine Economics 4657.9.1 Annualized Cost of Electricity from Wind Turbines 4657.9.2 LCOE with MACRS and PTC 4687.9.3 Debt and Equity Financing of Wind Energy Systems 4737.10 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines 473Problems 476References 4818 More Renewable Energy Systems for Electricity Generation 4878.1 Introduction 4878.2 Concentrating Solar–Thermal Power Systems 4878.2.1 Carnot Efficiency for Heat Engines 4888.2.2 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) 4918.2.3 Condenser Cooling for CSP Systems 4948.2.4 Thermal Energy Storage for CSP 4958.2.5 Linear Parabolic Trough Systems 4998.2.6 Solar Central Receiver Systems (Power Towers) 5018.2.7 Linear Fresnel Reflectors (LFRs) 5048.2.8 Solar Dish-Stirling (Dish/Engine) Power Systems 5058.2.9 Summarizing CSP Technologies 5098.3 Wave Energy Conversion 5128.3.1 The Wave Energy Resource 5128.3.2 Wave Energy Conversion Technology 5178.3.3 Predicting WEC Performance 5188.3.4 A Future for Wave Energy 5208.4 Tidal Power 5218.4.1 Tidal Current Power 5228.4.2 Origin of the Tides 5238.4.3 Estimating In-stream Tidal Power 5258.4.4 Estimating Tidal Energy Delivered 5288.5 Hydroelectric Power 5318.5.1 Hydropower Configurations 5328.5.2 Basic Principles 5348.5.3 Turbines 5368.5.4 Accounting for Losses 5388.5.5 Measuring Flow for a Micro-Hydro System 5418.5.6 Electrical Aspects of Small-scale Hydro 5428.6 Pumped Storage Hydro 5438.7 Biomass for Electricity 5468.7.1 Is Biomass a Carbon-Neutral Resource? 5478.7.2 Fuel Types for Electricity Generation 5488.8 Geothermal Power 5518.8.1 Resource Sites 5528.8.2 Energy Extraction 5538.8.3 Summary of Geothermal Power 554Problems 556References 5609 Mainstreaming Energy Efficiency as a Renewable Resource 5699.1 Introduction 5699.2 Efficiency Versus Conservation 5709.3 Energy Efficiency at Different Scales 5719.3.1 Energy Efficiency of Countries 5719.3.2 Energy Efficiency of Companies 5729.3.3 Energy Efficiency of Cities and Buildings 5729.3.4 Energy Efficiency of Equipment 5739.4 Benefits of Energy Efficiency 5759.5 Building Energy Efficiency 5769.5.1 Building Design: Passive and Active Strategies 5769.5.2 Efficient Operations: Commissioning, Monitoring, and Energy Management Systems 5859.5.3 Integrating Renewable Energy 5859.6 Policy and Regulation for Energy-Efficient Buildings 5869.7 Smart Grid 5889.7.1 Automating Distribution Systems 5899.7.2 Volt/VAR Optimization 5899.7.3 Better Control of the Grid 5919.7.4 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) 5939.7.5 Demand Response (DR) 5949.7.6 Dynamic Dispatch 5969.8 Electricity Storage 5989.9 Establishing Demand-Side Management Programs 5989.9.1 Disincentives Caused by Traditional Ratemaking 6009.9.2 Necessary Conditions for Successful DSM Programs 6019.9.3 Cost-Effectiveness Measures of DSM 6039.10 Economics of Energy Efficiency 6059.10.1 Energy Conservation Supply Curves 6059.11 Reducing Carbon: Greenhouse Gas Abatement Curves 6089.12 District Heating and District Cooling 6109.13 Combined Heat and Power Systems for Buildings and Districts 6129.13.1 CHP Efficiency Measures 6129.13.2 Economics of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) 6149.14 Technologies Used in CHP/Cogeneration Plants 6179.14.1 HHV and LHV 6179.14.2 Microturbines 6199.14.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 6219.15 Data and Energy 6239.15.1 Building Operations 6249.15.2 Multi-Building Operations and Planning 6259.15.3 City Climate Action 6259.15.4 Data Centers and the IT Sector 626Problems 629References 63310 Energy Storage: Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Hydrogen 63910.1 Ensuring Resource Adequacy 64010.2 The Need for Energy Storage 64110.3 Battery Basics 64210.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries 64410.5 Emerging Battery Technologies 64610.5.1 Silicon Anodes 64610.5.2 Lithium-Metal Batteries 64710.5.3 Solid-State Batteries 64810.6 Beyond the Cell: Producing Battery Modules and Packs 64810.6.1 Thermal Safety 65110.7 The Big Picture: Diverse Applications for Li-Ion Batteries 65210.8 Lead–Acid Batteries 65410.8.1 Basics of Lead–Acid Batteries 65410.8.2 Battery Chemistry of Lead–Acid Batteries 65610.9 Battery Storage Capacity 6.5.7 65910.10 Coulombic Efficiency Instead of Energy Efficiency 66310.11 Battery Systems for Buildings 66410.11.1 Commercial Buildings 66610.11.2 Operating to Maximize Cost Savings and Financial Benefits 66810.11.3 Incentives and Regulations for Energy Storage 66910.12 Carbon Savings 67010.13 Utility-Scale Batteries 67410.13.1 Flow Batteries 67810.13.2 Iron–Air Batteries for Long-Duration Energy Storage 68110.13.3 Sodium–Sulfur Batteries 68210.14 Dynamic Dispatch and Grid Storage with Electric Vehicle Fleets 68210.15 Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, Electrolyzers, and Prospects for Long-Term Storage 68610.15.1 Fuel Cells 68710.15.2 Historical Development 68810.15.3 Basic Operation of Fuel Cells 68810.15.4 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics: Enthalpy 69010.15.5 Entropy and the Theoretical Efficiency of Fuel Cells 69410.15.6 Gibbs Free Energy and Fuel Cell Efficiency 69710.15.7 Electrical Output of an Ideal Cell 69810.15.8 Electrical Characteristics of Real Fuel Cells 69910.15.9 Types of Fuel Cells 70110.15.10 Producing Hydrogen 706Problems 711References 71611 Microgrids 72511.1 Introduction 72511.2 Microgrids for Local Resilience 72611.3 Microgrids for Off-Grid Applications 72711.4 Off-Grid Solar PV with Battery Systems 72811.4.1 Stand-Alone System Components 72911.4.2 Self-Regulating Modules 73111.4.3 Estimating the Load 73311.4.4 Initial Array Sizing Assuming an MPP Tracker 73711.4.5 Battery Sizing for Stand-Alone Systems 73811.4.6 Sizing an Array with No MPP Tracker 74211.4.7 A Simple Design Template 74511.4.8 Stand-Alone PV System Costs 74911.5 PV-Powered Water Pumping 75111.5.1 The Electrical Side of the System 75311.5.2 Hydraulic Pump Curves 75411.5.3 Hydraulic System Curves 75811.5.4 Putting It All Together to Predict Performance 76111.6 Distributed Energy Resources 764Problems 764References 768A Energy Economics Tutorial 771A.1 Simple Payback Period 771A.2 Initial (Simple) Rate of Return 772A.3 The Time Value of Money and Net Present Value 772A.4 Internal Rate of Return 775A.5 Net Present Value with Fuel Escalation 777A.6 IRR with Fuel Escalation 779A.7 Annualizing the Investment 780A.8 Levelized Cost of Electricity 781A.9 Cash-Flow Analysis 785Index 787