Rick Chapman, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, USA Richard Gasparovic, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (Ret.), USA

• Preface xiiiAcronyms xv1 Introduction to Remote Sensing 11.1 How Remote Sensing Works 4References 92 Satellite Orbits 112.1 Computation of Elliptical Orbits 152.2 Low Earth Orbits 162.3 Geosynchronous Orbits 232.4 Molniya Orbit 282.5 Satellite Orbit Prediction 292.6 Satellite Orbital Trade-offs 29References 313 Infrared Sensing 333.1 Introduction 333.2 Radiometry 343.3 Radiometric Sensor Response 373.3.1 Derivation 373.3.2 Example Sensor Response Calculations 403.3.3 Response of a Sensor with a Partially-Filled FOV 403.4 Blackbody Radiation 413.4.1 Planck’s Radiation Law 413.4.2 Microwave Blackbody 423.4.3 Low-Frequency and High-Frequency Limits 433.4.4 Stefan–Boltzmann Law 433.4.5 Wein’s Displacement Law 443.4.6 Emissivity 443.4.7 Equivalent Blackbody Temperature 443.5 IR Sea Surface Temperature 453.5.1 Contributors to Infrared Measurements 453.5.2 Correction of Low-Altitude Infrared Measurements 463.5.3 Correction of High-Altitude Infrared Measurements 483.6 Atmospheric Radiative Transfer 493.7 Propagation in Seawater 543.8 Smooth Surface Reflectance 583.9 Rough Surface Reflectance 603.10 Ocean Thermal Boundary Layer 633.11 Operational SST Measurements 663.11.1 AVHRR Instrument 663.11.2 AVHRR Processing 683.11.3 AVHRR SST Algorithms 703.11.4 Example AVHRR Images 713.11.5 VIIRS Instrument 733.11.6 SST Accuracy 753.11.7 Applications 773.12 Land Temperature – Theory 773.13 Operational Land Temperature 803.14 Terrestrial Evapotranspiration 863.15 Geologic Remote Sensing 873.15.1 Linear Mixture Theory and Spectral Unmixing 903.16 Atmospheric Sounding 91References 954 Optical Sensing – Ocean Color 994.1 Introduction to Ocean Color 994.2 Fresnel Reflection 1034.3 Skylight 1064.4 Water-Leaving Radiance 1074.5 Water Column Reflectance 1104.5.1 Pure Seawater 1124.5.2 Case 1 Waters 1134.5.3 Case 2 Waters 1144.6 Remote Sensing Reflectance 1154.7 Ocean Color Data – Case 1 Water 1174.7.1 Other Uses of Ocean Color 1184.8 Atmospheric Corrections 1194.9 Ocean Color Satellite Sensors 1244.9.1 General History 1244.9.2 SeaWiFS 1264.9.3 MODIS 1304.9.4 VIIRS 1334.10 Ocean Chlorophyll Fluorescence 135References 1405 Optical Sensing – Land Surfaces 1435.1 Introduction 1435.2 Radiation over a Lambertian Surface 1435.3 Atmospheric Corrections 1475.4 Scattering from Vegetation 1475.5 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 1535.6 Vegetation Condition and Temperature Condition Indices 1585.7 Vegetation Indices from Hyperspectral Data 1595.8 Landsat Satellites 1615.9 High-resolution EO sensors 1645.9.1 Introduction 1645.9.2 First-Generation Systems 1645.9.3 Second-Generation Systems 1685.9.4 Third-Generation Systems 1725.9.5 Commercial Smallsat Systems 174References 1766 Microwave Radiometry 1796.1 Introduction to Microwave Radiometry 1796.2 Microwave Radiometers 1806.3 Microwave Radiometry 1816.3.1 Antenna Pattern 1826.3.2 Antenna Temperature 1846.3.3 Examples 1856.4 Polarization 1856.4.1 Basic Polarization 1856.4.2 Jones Vector 1876.4.3 Stokes Parameters 1876.5 Passive Microwave Sensing of the Ocean 1886.5.1 Atmospheric Transmission 1896.5.2 Seawater Emissivity 1896.5.3 Fresnel Reflection Coefficients, Emissivity, and Skin Depth 1906.5.4 Sky Radiometric Temperature 1916.5.5 Sea Surface Brightness Temperature 1936.5.6 Wind Direction from Polarization 1976.6 Satellite Microwave Radiometers 1986.6.1 SMMR 1986.6.2 SSM/I and SSMI/S 1986.6.3 SSM/I Wind Algorithm 2006.6.4 AMSR-E 2036.6.5 WindSat 2046.7 Microwave Radiometry of Sea Ice 2076.8 Sea Ice Measurements 2136.9 Microwave Radiometry of Land Surfaces 2186.10 Atmospheric Sounding 222References 2267 Radar 2297.1 Radar Range Equation 2297.2 Radar Cross-Section 2327.3 Radar Resolution 2367.4 Pulse Compression 2397.5 Types of Radar 2447.6 Example Terrestrial Radars 2457.6.1 Weather Radars 2457.6.2 HF Surface Wave Radar 248References 2498 Altimeters 2518.1 Introduction to Altimeters 2518.2 Specular Scattering 2548.3 Altimeter Wind Speed 2578.4 Altimeter Significant Wave Height 2608.5 Altimeter Sea Surface Height 2638.5.1 Introduction 2638.5.2 Pulse-limited vs Beam-limited Altimeter 2638.5.3 Altimeter Pulse Timing Precision 2648.5.4 Altimeter Range Corrections 2648.6 Sea Surface Topography 2688.7 Measuring Gravity and Bathymetry 2748.8 Delay-Doppler Altimeter 275References 2789 Scatterometers 2819.1 Ocean Waves 2819.2 Bragg Scattering 2879.3 RCS Dependence on Wind 2919.4 Scatterometer Algorithms 2939.5 Fan-Beam Scatterometers 2979.6 Conical-Scan Pencil-Beam Scatterometers 3009.7 Conical-Scan Fan-Beam Scatterometers 304References 30710 Synthetic Aperture Radar 30910.1 Introduction to SAR 30910.2 SAR Azimuth Resolution 31310.2.1 Doppler Time History 31310.2.2 Azimuth Extent, Integration Time, and Doppler Bandwidth 31610.2.3 Azimuth Resolution 31610.2.4 SAR Timing, Resolution, and Swath Limits 31810.2.5 The Magic of SAR Exposed 31910.3 SAR Image Formation and Image Quality 32010.4 SAR Imaging of Moving Scatterers 32210.5 Multimode SARs 32510.6 Polarimetric SAR 32610.6.1 Polarimetric Response of Canonical Targets 32710.6.2 Decompositions 32810.6.3 Compact Polarimetry 32910.7 SAR Systems 33010.7.1 Radarsat-1 33210.7.2 Envisat 33410.7.3 PALSAR 33510.7.4 Radarsat-2 33510.7.5 TerraSAR-X 33510.7.6 COSMO-SkyMed 33510.7.7 Sentinel-1 33610.7.8 Radarsat Constellation Mission (RCM) 33710.7.9 Military SARs 33710.8 Advanced SARs 33910.8.1 Cross-Track Interferometry 33910.8.2 Along-Track Interferometry 34110.8.3 Differential Interferometry 34410.8.4 Tomographic Interferometry 34410.8.5 High-Resolution, Wide-Swath SAR 34410.9 SAR Applications 34610.9.1 SAR Ocean Surface Waves 34710.9.2 SAR Winds 35310.9.3 SAR Bathymetry 36010.9.4 SAR Ocean Internal Waves 36410.9.5 SAR Sea Ice 37010.9.6 SAR Oil Slicks and Ship Detection 37410.9.7 SAR Land Mapping Applications and Distortions 38010.9.8 SAR Agricultural Applications 386References 38811 Lidar 39311.1 Introduction 39311.2 Types of Lidar 39311.2.1 Direct vs Coherent Detection 39411.3 Processes Driving Lidar Returns 39511.3.1 Elastic Scattering 39511.3.2 Inelastic Scattering 39611.3.3 Fluorescence 39711.4 Lidar Range Equation 39711.4.1 Point Scattering Target 39711.4.2 Lambertian Surface 39811.4.3 Elastic Volume Scattering 39811.4.4 Bathymetric Lidar 39811.5 Lidar Receiver Types 40011.5.1 Linear (full waveform) Lidar 40011.5.2 Single Photon Lidar 40111.6 Lidar Altimetry 40211.6.1 NASA Airborne Topographic Mapper 40211.6.2 Space-Based Lidar Altimeters (IceSat-1 & 2) 40311.6.3 Bathymetric Lidar 40511.7 Lidar Atmospheric Sensing 40511.7.1 ADM-Aeolus 40511.7.2 NASA CALIOP 408References 41112 Other Remote Sensing and Future Missions 41312.1 Other Types of Remote Sensing 41312.1.1 GRACE 41312.1.2 Limb Sounding 41412.2 Future Missions 41412.2.1 NASA Missions 41512.2.2 ESA Missions 41612.2.3 Summary 418References 419Appendix A Constants 421Appendix B Definitions of Common Angles 423Appendix C Example Radiometric Calculations 427Appendix D Optical Sensors 433D.1 Example Optical Sensors 435D.1.1 Photodiodes 435D.1.2 Charge-Coupled Devices 437D.1.3 CMOS Image Sensors 439D.1.4 Bolometers and Microbolometers 440D.2 Optical Sensor Design Examples 442D.2.1 Computing Exposure Times 442D.2.2 Impact of Digitization and Shot Noise on Contrast Detection 444References 445Appendix E Radar Design Example 447Appendix F Remote Sensing Resources on the Internet 455F.1 Information and Tutorials 455F.2 Data 455F.3 Data Processing Tools 456F.4 Satellite and Sensor Databases 456F.5 Other 456Appendix G Useful Trigonometric Identities 457Index 459