Radio Science Techniques for Deep Space Exploration

SAMI W. ASMAR is Manager of Strategic Partnerships for the Interplanetary Network Directorate at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, and the General Secretary of the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems. He has over thirty years’ experience in the field of radio science and, among other recognition, has been awarded three NASA Exceptional Achievement Medals.

• Foreword xiPreface xiiiAcknowledgments xvAuthor and Contributors xvii1 Investigations and Techniques 11.0 Introduction 11.1 Historical Background 21.1.1 The Field of Radio Science 31.2 Fundamental Concepts 51.2.1 Categories of RS Investigations 101.2.2 Related Fields 121.3 Historical Development 141.4 Overview of the Radio Science Instrumentation System 181.4.1 Flight System 231.4.2 Ground System 241.4.3 Other Ground Stations 261.5 Noise, Error Sources, and Calibrations 261.6 Experiment Implementation, Data Archiving, and Critical Mission Support 291.7 Radio Science at Home 301.8 Future Directions 321.9 Summary and Remaining Chapters 32Appendix 1A Selected Accomplishments and Planned Observations in Spacecraft Radio Science 351A.1 Selected Accomplishments in Radio Science 351A.2 Planned Observations in the Near-Term 361A.3 Planned Observations in the Long Term 372 Planetary Atmospheres, Rings, and Surfaces 392.1 Overview of Radio Occultations 392.2 Neutral Atmospheres 452.2.1 Abel Inversion 482.3 Ionospheres 522.4 Rings 532.4.1 Ring Occultation Observables 552.4.2 Ring Occultation Analysis 562.4.3 Ring Diffraction Correction 602.4.4 Data Decimation and Profile Resolution 612.4.5 Signal-to-noise Ratio-resolution Tradeoff 612.5 Surface Scattering 643 Gravity Science and Planetary Interiors 693.1 Overview 693.2 Gravity Observables and Formulations 743.2.1 Alternative Basis and Methods 753.2.2 Tidal Forces and Time Variable Gravity 763.2.3 Covariance Analysis 813.3 Earth and Moon Gravity Measurements and the Development of Crosslinks 833.4 Shape and Topography Data for Interpretation of Gravity Measurements 873.4.1 Imagery 923.4.2 Altimetry 933.4.3 Space-based Radar 943.4.4 Radio Occultations 943.4.5 Ground-based Radar 943.4.6 Examples of Results of Gravity–Topography Analysis 943.5 Application to Solar System Bodies 953.5.1 Moon 963.5.2 Mercury 963.5.3 Venus 973.5.4 Mars 973.5.5 Jupiter 993.5.6 Saturn 1023.5.7 Uranus 1033.5.8 Neptune 1043.5.9 Pluto 1043.5.10 Asteroids and Comets 1043.5.11 Pioneer and Earth Flyby Anomalies 1053.6 A User’s Guide 1063.6.1 Calculation of Observables and Partials 1083.6.2 Estimation Filter 1093.6.3 Solution Analysis 109Appendix 3A Planetary Geodesy 1113A.1 Planetary Geodesy: Gravitational Potentials and Fields 1113A.2 Gravity Determination Technique 1143A.3 Dynamical Integration 1143A.4 Processing of Observations 1163A.5 Filtering of Observations 1174 Solar and Fundamental Physics 1234.1 Principles of Heliospheric Observations 1234.2 Inner Heliospheric Electron Density 1264.3 Density Power Spectrum 1274.4 Intermittency, Nonstationarity, and Events 1274.5 Faraday Rotation 1284.6 Spaced-receiver Measurements 1284.7 Space-time Localization of Plasma Irregularities 1294.8 Utility for Telecommunications Engineering 1304.9 Precision Tests of Relativistic Gravity 1314.10 Scientific Goals and Objectives 1334.10.1 Determine γ to an Accuracy of 2 × 10−6 1344.10.2 Determine β to an Accuracy of ~3 × 10−5 1354.10.3 Determine η to an Accuracy of at Least 4.4 × 10−4 1354.10.4 Determine α1 to an Accuracy of 7.8 × 10−6 1354.10.5 Determine the Solar Oblateness to an Accuracy of 4.8 × 10−9 1354.10.6 Test Any Time Variation of the Gravitational Constant, G, to an Accuracy of 3 × 10−13 Per Year 1354.10.7 Characterize the Solar Corona 1364.11 Comparison with Other Experiments 1364.11.1 Cassini 1364.11.2 Gravity Probe B 1374.11.3 Messenger 1374.11.4 Lunar Laser Ranging 1374.11.5 Gaia 1374.12 MORE Summary 1384.13 Anomalous Motion of Pioneers 10 and 11 138Appendix 4A Solar Corona Observation Methodology Illustrated by Mars Express 1394A.1 Formulation 1394A.2 Total Electron Content from Ranging Data 1414A.3 Change in Total Electron Content from Doppler Data 1434A.4 Electron Density 1444A.5 Coronal Mass Ejections 1454A.6 Separation of Uplink and Downlink Effects from Plasma 1504A.7 Earth Atmospheric Correction 1524A.8 Example Data 153Appendix 4B Faraday Rotation Methodology Illustrated by Magellan Observations 1574B.1 Formulation 1574B.2 Coronal Radio Sounding 1584B.3 The Faraday Rotation Effect 1604B.4 Measurement of the Total Electron Content 1614B.5 Combining the Faraday Rotation and Total Electron Content 1624B.6 Instrument Overview: The Magellan Spacecraft 1644B.7 Instrument Overview: The Deep Space Network 1654B.8 Data Processing and Results 1664B.9 Conclusion 167Appendix 4C Precision Doppler Tracking of Deep Space Probes and the Search for Low-frequency Gravitational Radiation 1714C.1 Background 1714C.2 Response of Spacecraft Doppler Tracking to Gravitational Waves 1724C.3 Noise in Doppler GW Observations and Their Transfer Functions 1744C.4 Detector Performance 1764C.4.1 Periodic and Quasi-periodic Waves 1764C.4.2 Burst Waves 1774C.4.3 Stochastic Waves 1784C.5 Sensitivity Improvements in Future Doppler GW Observations 1795 Technologies, Instrumentation, and Operations 1815.1 Overview 1815.1.1 End-to-End Instrumentation Overview 1825.1.2 Experiment Error Budgets 1875.2 Key Concepts and Terminology 1915.2.1 The Allan Deviation for Frequency and Timing Standards 1915.2.2 Signal Operational Modes 1975.2.3 Reception Modes 2005.2.4 Signal Carrier Modulation Modes 2025.3 Radio Science Technologies 2035.3.1 Spacecraft Ultrastable Oscillator 2045.3.2 Spacecraft Ka-band Translator 2135.3.3 Spacecraft Open-loop Receiver 2155.3.4 Spacecraft Radio Science Beacon 2155.3.5 Ground Water Vapor Radiometer 2155.3.6 Ground Advanced Ranging Instrument 2155.3.7 Ground Bethe Hole Coupler 2165.3.8 Ground Advanced Pointing Techniques 2175.4 Operations and Experiment Planning 2175.5 Data Products 2185.5.1 Range Rate 2195.5.2 Range 2205.5.3 Delta Differential One-way Ranging (Delta-DOR) 2225.5.4 Differenced Range Versus Integrated Doppler 2225.5.5 Open-loop Receiver (Radio Science Receiver) 2235.5.6 Media Calibration 2245.5.7 Spacecraft Trajectory 2255.5.8 Calibration Data Sets 225Appendix 5A Spacecraft Telecommunications System and Radio Science Flight Instrument for Several Deep Space Missions 2276 Future Directions in Radio Science Investigations and Technologies 2316.1 Fundamental Questions toward a Future Exploration Roadmap 2316.1.1 Fundamental Questions about the Utility of RS Techniques 2326.1.2 Possible Triggers for Specific Innovations for Future Investigations 2336.1.3 Possible Synergies with Other Fields 2336.1.4 Examining Relevant Methodologies 2346.2 Science-Enabling Technologies: Constellations of Small Spacecraft 2356.2.1 Constellations for Investigations of Atmospheric Structure and Dynamics 2366.2.2 Constellations for Investigations of Interior Structure and Dynamics 2386.2.3 Constellations for Simultaneous and Differential Measurements 2396.2.4 Constellations of Entry Probes and Atmospheric Vehicles 2406.2.5 Constellations for Investigations of Planetary Surface 2416.3 Science-enabling via Optical Links 2436.4 Science-enabling Calibration Techniques 2436.4.1 Earth’s Troposphere Water Vapor Radiometry 2446.4.2 Antenna Mechanical Noise 2446.4.3 Advanced Ranging 2456.5 Summary 246Appendix 6A The National Academies Planetary Science Decadal Survey, Radio Science Contribution, 2009: Planetary Radio Science: Investigations of Interiors, Surfaces, Atmospheres, Rings, and Environments 2476A.1 Summary 2486A.2 Background 2486A.3 Historical Opportunities and Discoveries 2496A.4 Recent Opportunities and Discoveries 2496A.5 Future Opportunities 2506A.6 Technological Advances in Flight Instrumentation 2526A.7 The Future of Flight Instrumentation 2536A.7.1 Crosslink Radio Science 2536A.7.2 Ka-band Transponders and Other Instrumentation 2546A.8 Ground Instrumentation 2546A.8.1 NASA’s Deep Space Network 2546A.8.2 Other Facilities 2546A.9 New Communications Architectures: Arrays and Optical Links 2556A.10 Conclusion and Goals 255Appendix 6B The National Academies Planetary Science Decadal Survey, Radio Science Contribution: Solar System Interiors, Atmospheres, and Surfaces Investigations via Radio Links: Goals for the Next Decade 2576B.1 Summary 2586B.2 Current Status of RS Investigations 2596B.3 Key Science Goals for the Next Decade 2606B.4 Radio Science Techniques for Achieving the Science Goals of the Next Decade 2626B.5 Technology Development Needed in the Next Decade 263References 267Acronyms and Abbreviations 311Index 331

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