Problems of Heaven and Hell in Islam

This Element offers a philosophical introduction to, and examination of, the traditional Islamic (Sunnī) understanding of soteriology, focusing on the doctrines of heaven and hell. It explores how traditional Sunnī conceptions of ultimate reward and punishment raise several pressing philosophical questions, including those about human purpose, human nature, and God's mercy. Although primarily philosophical, the discussion in this Element is grounded in Islamic sources and thinkers. Drawing from the Qurʾān, aḥādīth, and classical figures such as Ibn Sīnā, Al-Ghazālī, and Ibn al-Qayyim, it assesses whether traditional Sunnī portrayals of heavenly reward and eternal damnation are philosophically and theologically defensible. The Element concludes that they are not, advancing instead a virtue-oriented and universalist vision of salvation.