Planning and Urban Design Standards

The American Planning Association (APA) is a Chicago-based non-profit public-interest and research organization representing 30,000 practicing planners, officials and citizens involved with urban and rural planning issues.It conducts extensive research on planning topics including a landmark study on Growing Smart, Site Planning Essentials for Central America and The City Parks Forum. It also publishes Planning, a monthly magazine and Zoning News, a monthly newsletter on local land-use controls, and the Journal of the American Planning Association, a quarterly journal, along with other specialized journals and Planning Advisory Service (PAS) reports.

• Publisher’s Note ixForeword xPreface xiAcknowledgments xiiUser Guide xvPart 1 Plans and Plan Making 1Plan Making 3Plan Making 3Types of Plans 6Comprehensive Plans 6Urban Design Plans 10Regional Plans 14Neighborhood Plans 16Downtown Plans 18Corridor Plans 23Redevelopment Area Plans 25Transportation Plans 27Housing Plans 31Economic Development Plans 34Community Facilities Plans 36Parks and Open-Space Plans 38Critical and Sensitive Areas Plans 41Hazard Mitigation Plans 43Participation 46Role of Participation 46Stakeholder Identification 49Surveys 51Asset Mapping 53Community Visioning 55Charrettes 57Public Meetings 59Public Hearings 62Computer-Based Public Participation 63Facilitation 65Consensus Building and Dispute Resolution 66Planning Movements 68The Landscape Tradition 68Engineering Livable Cities 70Garden Cities 71City Beautiful 73Practical Planning 75Regionalism, 1910 to 1940 77Public Housing and Urban Renewal 79Measuring and Modeling 81Advocacy and Equity Planning 82Urban Growth and Environmental Concerns 84Statewide Land-Use Planning Programs 86Redesigning Downtown 87Renewed Neighborhoods, New Towns, and New Urbanism 89New Regionalism: Environment, Politics, and Planning 91Environmental Justice 93Sustainability 95Healthy Cities and Communities 96Part 2 Environmental Management 97Environmental Management Overview 99Environmental Planning Considerations 99Air 101Air Quality 101Air Sheds 103Heat Islands 105Water 107Hydrologic Cycle 107Watersheds 109Aquifers 111Groundwater Movement and Recharge 113Rivers and Streams 115Floodplains and Riparian Corridors 118River and Stream Restoration 122Types of Wetlands 125Wetlands Delineation 127Wetlands Mitigation 128Beach and Dune Systems 130Estuaries, Flats, and Marshes 133Land 135Soils Classification and Mechanics 135Slope, Relief, and Aspect 137Habitat Patches, Corridors, and Matrix 139Disturbance Zones 141Biodiversity Protection 143Invasive Species 145Hazards 148Flood Hazards 149Erosion and Sedimentation 151Hurricanes and Coastal Storms 154Landslides 156Sinkholes and Subsidence 159Earthquakes 161Wildfires 164Underground Leaks 166Hazardous Materials 168Seiches and Tsunamis 171Noise and Vibration 173Multihazards 179Part 3 Structures 183Building Types 185Residential Types 185Single-Family Detached 189Single-Family Attached 190Multifamily Low-Rise 191Multifamily Mid-Rise 192Multifamily High-Rise 193Manufactured Housing 194Office Buildings 196Warehouse and Distribution Facilities 200Elementary, Middle, and High Schools 203Fire and Rescue Stations 207Police Stations 210Medical Facilities 214Transportation 219Sidewalks 219Hierarchy of Streets and Roads 226Street Networks and Street Connectivity 229Alleys and Driveways 233Vehicle Turning Radii 236Traffic Calming 238Pedestrian-Friendly Streets 242Considerations for Determining Parking Ratios 245Shared Parking 247Passenger Vehicle Dimensions for Parking Design 248Vehicle Circulation for Parking Design 250Parking Space Dimensions 253Parking Lot Design 255On-Street Bikeways 259Multiuser Trails 261Transit Planning Process 265Bus Transit 268Bus Rapid Transit 272Rail Transit 278Intermodal and Multimodal Transit Facilities 284Airport and Land-Use Interface 287Airside 295Landside 297Utilities 300Waste Management Overview 300Transfer Stations 302Landfills 305Incinerators 310Waste Diversion 314Hazardous Waste Management 318Composting 321Wastewater Overview 324Wastewater Collection Systems 326Wastewater Treatment 329Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems 334Stormwater Overview, Runoff, and Recharge 336Stormwater Treatment 340Stormwater Drainage and Flood Management 343Water Supply 345Water Treatment 347Water Storage and Distribution 350Water Conservation 353Wireless Infrastructure Overview 355Colocation of Wireless Equipment 357Signage 359Signs Generally 359On-Premise Signs 360Legal Issues in Sign Regulation 364Parks and Open Space 366Types of Parks 366Greenways and Trails 372Conservation Areas 376Playgrounds 379Farming and Forestry 384Farms 384Feedlots 387Forestry 389Part 4 Places and Placemaking 393Regions 395Regions 395Theories of City Form 399Urban Patterns 399Urban Morphology 401Life-Cycle Model of Land-Use Change 403Early Theories: Concentric Zones, Sector Theory, Multiple Nuclei 405Recent Theories: Dispersed City, Edge City, Peripheral City 407Places and Districts 409Neighborhoods 409Neighborhood Centers 412Physical Structure of Downtowns 415Commercial Corridors 418Historic Districts 421Waterfronts 425Specialty Retail Districts 430Sexually Oriented Businesses 432Arts Districts 435Convention Center Districts 437Industrial Parks 440Office Parks 442Main Streets 444Development Types 447Mixed-Use Development 447Transit-Oriented Development 450Conservation Development 453Infill Development 456HOPE VI 458Design Considerations 460Environmental Site Analysis 460Urban Analysis 463Scale and Density 468Safety 472Walkability 478Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design—LEED 481Energy-Efficient Development 484Green Infrastructure 486Wayfinding Systems 488Streetscape 491Part 5 Analysis Techniques 501Projections and Demand Analysis 503Population Projections 503Economic Base and Econometric Projections 507Housing Needs Assessment 509Parks, Recreation, and Open-Space Needs Assessment 512Impact Assessment 514Environmental Impact Assessment 514Fiscal Impact Assessment 518Traffic Impact Studies 521Transit Impact Studies 524Traffic Sheds 526Mapping 527Mapping Data Overview 527Aerial Photographs and Digital Orthophoto Quadrangles 529U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps 530Property Maps in Modern Cadastre 535Census Data and Demographic Mapping 536Remote Sensing and Satellite Image Classification 538Geographic Information Systems 540Visualization 543Visualization Overview 543Montage Visualization 545Three-Dimensional Visualization 547Visual Preference Techniques 549Part 6 Implementation Techniques 553Legal Foundations 555Planning Law Overview 555Property Rights, Police Power, Nuisance, and Vested Rights 556Due Process and Equal Protection 558Freedom of Religion and Expression 560Eminent Domain,Takings, and Exactions 563Clean Air Act 566Clean Water Act 567National Environmental Policy Act 569Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 572Endangered Species Act 574Safe Drinking Water Act 576Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 578Current Federal Transportation Laws 579Federal Housing and Community Development Law 581Federal Disaster Law 584Other Federal Laws 586State Enabling Legislation 589State Environmental Policy Acts 590Zoning Regulation 593Subdivision Regulation 597Planned Unit Development 599Innovations in Local Zoning Regulations 601Growth Management 604Adequate Public Facilities and Concurrency Management 604Urban Growth Areas 606Development Impact Fees 609Transfer and Purchase of Development Rights 610Smart Growth Audits 611Transportation and Land-Use Connection 613Preservation, Conservation, and Reuse 616Open-Space Preservation Techniques 616Farmland Preservation 618Land Evaluation and Site Assessment 621Viewshed Protection 622Historic Structures 627Military Base Closure and Conversion 631Brownfields 633Rails to Trails 635Revitalization and Economic Development 637Capital Improvement Programs 637Empowerment Zones and Enterprise Communities 639Tax Increment Financing 641Planned Manufacturing Districts 644Redevelopment Agencies 645Business Improvement Districts 646Current Planning 648Development Services 648Staff Reports for Development Proposals 650Site Plan Review 652Design Guidelines 655Real Estate Development 659Financing Methods and Techniques 659Financial Planning and Analysis: The Pro Forma 662Development and Approval Process 668Resources 671APA Divisions and Chapters 694The Planning Accreditation Board’s Accredited University Planning Programs 695Land-Based Classification Standards 702Graphic Symbols and Drawing Annotations 710National Planning Award Winners 711Index 713