Photocatalytic Functional Materials for Environmental Remediation

DR. ALAGARSAMY PANDIKUMAR is Scientist at CSIR-Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi, India. His current research involves development of novel materials with graphene, graphitic carbon nitrides, transition metal chalcogenides in combination with metals, metal oxides, polymers and carbon nanotubes for photocatalysis, photoelectrocatalysis, dye-sensitized solar cells, and electrochemical sensor applications. DR. KANDASAMY JOTHIVENKATACHALAM is Professor of Chemistry at Anna University, BIT campus, Tiruchirappalli, India. His research interests are photocatalysis, photoelectrochemistry, photoelectrocatalysis, and chemically modified electrodes.

• List of Contributors xiPreface xv1 Titanium Dioxide and Carbon Nanomaterials for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes 1Nagamalai VasimalaiAbbreviations 11.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Impact of Dye Effluents on the Environment and Health 31.2 Principles and Mechanism of Photocatalysis 61.2.1 Direct Photocatalytic Pathways 71.2.1.1 The Langmuir–Hinshel Wood Process 81.2.1.2 The Eley–Rideal Process 81.2.2 Indirect Photocatalytic Mechanisms 81.3 Importance of Titanium Dioxide 91.3.1 Rutile 101.3.2 Anatase 101.3.3 Brookite 101.4 Titanium Dioxide for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes 111.4.1 Approaches Enhance the Photocatalytic Activity of TiO2 121.4.2 Metal and Multi‐Atom Doped TiO2 131.5 Carbon Nanomaterials for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes 151.5.1 Activated Carbon 161.5.2 Graphite 171.5.3 Graphene 191.5.4 Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerenes 201.5.5 Carbon Black 211.5.6 Carbon Nanofibers 221.5.7 Carbon Quantum Dots 221.5.8 Mesoporous Carbon 241.6 Conclusion and Trends 26References 272 Visible Light Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants Using Metal Oxide Semiconductors 41S. Thangaraj Nishanthi2.1 Introduction 412.2 Photocatalysis 422.3 Mechanism and Fundamentals of Photocatalytic Reactions 422.4 Synthesis of Different Photocatalysts 442.4.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Methods 452.4.2 Electrodeposition 462.4.3 Chemical Bath Deposition 462.4.4 Sol‐Gel Process 472.4.5 Chemical Precipitation 472.5 Factors Affecting Photocatalytic Degradation 472.5.1 Catalyst Loading 472.5.2 pH of the Solution 482.5.3 Size and Structure of the Photocatalyst 492.5.4 Reaction Temperature 492.5.5 Concentration and Nature of Pollutants 492.5.6 Inorganic Ions 502.6 Metal Oxide Semiconductors 502.7 Ternary/Quaternary Oxides 542.8 Composites Semiconductors 552.9 Sensitization 562.10 Conclusions 57References 573 Contemporary Achievements of Visible Light‐Driven Nanocatalysts for the Environmental Applications 69Panneerselvam Sathishkumar, Nalenthiran Pugazhenthiran, Ramalinga V. Mangalaraja, Kiros Guesh, David Contreras, and Sambandam Anandan3.1 Introduction 693.1.1 Langmuir–Hinshelwood Approach 713.1.2 The Eley–Rideal Approach 713.1.3 Indirect Photocatalytic Approach 723.2 Types of Photocatalytic Reactor Models 733.3 Modification of Semiconductor Nanoparticles 903.3.1 Metal Nanoparticles 903.3.2 Non‐Metal Deposition 913.4 Emerging Photocatalysts 953.4.1 Perovskite Photocatalysts 953.4.2 C3N4‐Supported Photocatalysts 963.5 Mechanisms of Photocatalysis 993.6 Conclusion 116References 1214 Application of Nanocomposites for Photocatalytic Removal of Dye Contaminants 131Sivaraman Somasundaram, Pitchaimani Veerakumar, King‐Chuen Lin, and Vignesh Kumaravel4.1 Nanocomposites and Applications 1314.2 Dyes: Introduction, Classification, and Impacts on the Environment 1314.3 Strategies of Dye Contaminant Removal 1334.4 Photodegradation and the Removal of Dyes Using Nanocomposites 1344.4.1 Zeolite‐Based Nanocomposites 1534.4.2 Clay‐Supported Nanocomposites 1534.4.3 Polymer‐Based Nanocomposites 1544.5 Photocatalytic Reactors for Dye Degradation 1564.6 Summary 156References 1575 Photocatalytic Active Silver Phosphate for Photoremediation of Organic Pollutants 163Sachin V. Otari and Hemraj M. Yadav5.1 Introduction 1635.2 Properties of Ag3PO4 1655.2.1 Structural Features 1655.2.2 Antimicrobial Properties 1665.3 Photoremediation of Organic Pollutants 1675.3.1 Effect of Morphology 1685.3.1.1 Size and Structure of the Photocatalyst 1685.3.1.2 Facet‐Dependent Photocatalysts 1715.3.2 Effect of Composition 1725.3.2.1 Carbon Materials 1735.3.2.2 Semiconductor Materials 1765.3.2.3 Magnetic Particles 1795.3.2.4 Metal Particles 1795.3.3 Doping Effect 1825.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects 182Acknowledgements 183References 1836 Plasmonic Ag‐ZnO: Charge Carrier Mechanisms and Photocatalytic Applications 191Raghavachari Kavitha, Shivashankar Girish Kumar, and Channe Gowda Sushma6.1 ZnO‐Based Photocatalysis 1916.2 Why Deposit Silver on ZnO Surface? 1926.3 Methods to Decorate Silver NPs on the Surface of ZnO 1936.4 Mechanism of Charge Carrier Transfer Dynamics in Ag‐ZnO 1976.4.1 Schottky Barrier and Charge Transfer Process 1986.4.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance Effects 1986.4.3 Defect Chemistry of Ag‐ZnO 1996.5 Influence of Silver Content on Optimizing the Photocatalytic Activity 2006.6 Structure–Morphology Relationship on Photocatalytic Activity 2016.7 Co‐modification of Ag‐ZnO for Photocatalysis 2046.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects 207References 2087 Multifunctional Hybrid Materials Based on Layered Double Hydroxide towards Photocatalysis 215Lagnamayee Mohapatra and Dhananjaya Patra7.1 Introduction 2157.2 Hybrid LDHs from LDH Precursors 2167.3 Photocatalytic Applications of Different LDH‐Based Hybrid Materials 2177.3.1 LDH‐Based Mixed Metal Oxides (MMO) 2217.3.2 Hybrid MMOs for Dye Degradation 2257.3.3 LDH Nanocomposites 2277.3.4 Intercalated LDH 2317.4 Conclusions 233References 2348 Magnetically Separable Iron Oxide‐Based Nanocomposite Photocatalytic Materials for Environmental Remediation 243Sakthivel Thangavel, Nivea Raghavan, and Gunasekaran Venugopal8.1 Introduction 2438.2 Synthesis Techniques for Magnetic Nanophotocatalyst Composites 2468.3 Three Types of Semiconductor Magnetic‐Based Nanocomposites 2498.4 Graphene‐Based Magnetically Separable Composites 2518.4.1 Metal Di‐Chalcogenides‐Magnetic Nanocomposite Photocatalysts 2528.4.2 Graphitic Carbon Nitride‐Based Magnetic Photocatalysts 2548.5 The Effect of Iron Oxide‐Based Photocatalysts on Pollutants 2558.5.1 Organic Dye Pollutant Degradation 2558.5.2 Non‐Dye or Colorless Compounds 2568.5.3 Heavy Metals 2588.5.4 Pharmaceutical Waste 2598.6 Summary 260References 2609 Photo Functional Materials for Environmental Remediation 267Pazhanivel Devendran and Meenakshisundaram Swaminathan9.1 Introduction 2679.2 Photoelectric Effect 2679.3 Photo Functional Materials (Photocatalysts) 2689.4 Photodegradation of Textile Dyes 2719.5 Semiconductor‐Based Photocatalysts 2729.6 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 2749.7 Photo Functional Semiconductors on CNT Hybrid Materials for Tunable Optoelectronic Devices 2759.8 Fabrication of CdS Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells Using Nitrogen‐Functionalized CNTs/TiO2 Nanocomposites 2769.9 Graphene Sheet 2809.10 CdS/G Nanocomposites for Efficient Visible Light Driven Photocatalysis 2819.11 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g‐C3N4) 2839.12 Conclusions 284References 28510 Graphitic Carbon Nitride‐Based Nanostructured Materials for Photocatalytic Applications 291Jayaraman Theerthagiri, Kumaraguru Duraimurugan, Hyun‐Seok Kim, and Jagannathan Madhavan10.1 Introduction 29110.2 General Mechanism: Reaction Pathway 29210.3 g‐C3N4 and Composites in Photocatalytic Degradation 29410.4 Conclusions and Future Directions 304Acknowledgements 305References 30511 Metal–Organic Frameworks for Photocatalytic Environmental Remediation 309Mohan Sakar and Trong‐On Do11.1 Introduction 30911.2 Structural Features of MOFs 31011.3 Synthesis of MOFs 31211.3.1 Evaporation Method 31311.3.2 Vapor Diffusion Method 31311.3.3 Gel Crystallization Process 31311.3.4 Solvothermal Synthesis 31311.3.5 Microwave‐Assisted Synthesis 31411.3.6 Sonochemical Methods 31411.3.7 Electrochemical Synthesis 31411.3.8 Mechanochemical Synthesis 31511.4 Photocatalytic MOFs by Design 31511.5 Photocatalytic Applications of MOFs 31711.5.1 Degradation of Organic Pollutants 31711.5.2 CO2 Reduction 32011.5.3 Heavy Metal Reduction 32311.5.4 Others 32611.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 327Acknowledgements 329References 32912 Active Materials for Photocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide 343Balasubramanian Viswanathan12.1 Introduction 34312.2 CO2 Photoreduction – Essentials 34512.3 Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide with Water 34812.4 Nanomaterials and New Combinations of Materials for Carbon Dioxide Reduction 35012.5 Selection of Materials 35512.6 Material Modifications for Improving Efficiency 35912.7 Perspectives in the Photocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide 363Acknowledgements 367References 367Index 373

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