Pesticides in Crop Production

PRABHAT KUMAR SRIVASTAVA is an Assistant Professor of Botany in K. S. Saket Post Graduate College, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India, an affiliated college of Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India. VIJAY PRATAP SINGH is an Assistant Professor of Botany in C. M. P. Degree College, a constituent college of University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India. ANITA SINGH is an Assistant Professor of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. DURGESH KUMAR TRIPATHI is an Assistant Professor in Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India. SAMIKSHA SINGH is a D. Phil. scholar in the Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India. SHEO MOHAN PRASAD is a Professor in the Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India. DEVENDRA KUMAR CHAUHAN is Professor and Head, Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India.

• List of Contributors xiiiPreface xix1 Development of Pesticide Resistance in Pests: A Key Challenge to the Crop Protection and Environmental Safety 1Subramani Pandian and Manikandan Ramesh1.1 Resistance: The Introduction 11.2 Pesticide Resistance: A Global Analysis 21.3 Molecular Genetics and Biochemical Basis of Pesticide Resistance 21.4 Changes in Pesticide Binding Sites 21.5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors 31.6 GABA Receptors and Other Ligand-gated Chloride Channels 41.7 Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channels 41.8 Insecticidal Microbial Toxins 51.9 Biotransformation 61.10 Acetylcholinesterase 61.11 Esterases 71.12 Carboxylesterases (B-Esterases) 71.13 Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases 81.14 Glutathione S-Transferases 81.15 Other Resistance Mechanisms 9References 92 Fungicide Toxicity to Legumes and Its Microbial Remediation: A Current Perspective 15Mohammad Shahid, Mohammad Saghir Khan and Almas Zaidi2.1 Introduction 152.2 Nutritional Importance of Legumes 162.3 Fungal Diseases of Legumes: A General Perspective 172.4 Types of Fungicides and Their Mode of Action 172.5 Fungicides Uptake, Metabolism and Their Persistence 202.6 Phytotoxicity of Fungicides to Legumes: A General Perspective 212.7 Impact of Fungicides on Plant Growth 212.8 Effect on Symbiosis and Yield 232.9 Effect on Chlorophyll Content and Photosynthetic Rates 242.10 Fungicide Toxicity to Legume Rhizobium Symbiosis 252.10.1 Effect on Nodulation 252.10.2 Effect of Fungicides on Nitrogenase and Leghaemoglobin 252.10.3 Effect on Dry Biomass 262.11 Microbial Remediation of Fungicide Toxicity 262.12 Concluding Remarks 28References 283 Pesticide Metabolism in Plants, Insects, Soil Microbes and Fishes: An Overview 35Anket Sharma, Vinod Kumar, Sukhmeen Kaur Kohli, Ravdeep Kaur, Tajinder Kaur, Saroj Arora, Ashwani Kumar Thukral and Renu Bhardwaj3.1 Introduction 353.2 Metabolism of Pesticides in Plants 363.3 Metabolism of Pesticides in Insects 393.4 Metabolism of Pesticides in Soil Microbes 413.5 Metabolism of Pesticides in Fishes 433.6 Conclusion 45References 454 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides and Its Impact on Biological Systems 55Shubhra Gupta and Kapil Gupta4.1 Introduction 554.2 Dispersion of Pesticides into the Environment 564.3 Behavior of Pesticides in Soil 574.4 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnifications of Pesticide 584.4.1 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides in Plants 594.4.2 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides in Animals 604.4.3 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides in Human and Toxicity 614.5 Regulatory Activity 624.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 62References 635 Impact of Pesticide Exposure and Associated Health Effects 69Jyoti Upadhayay, Mahendra Rana, Vijay Juyal, Satpal Singh Bisht and Rohit Joshi5.1 Introduction 695.2 History of Evolution of Pesticides 705.3 Pesticides Regulations 705.4 Impact on Environment 715.5 Impact on Human Health 725.5.1 Pesticide Exposure 725.5.1.1 Pesticide Exposure Routes in Humans 725.5.1.2 Acute Toxicity of Pesticides 725.5.1.3 Neurobehavioral Effects After Acute Toxicity 745.5.1.4 Chronic Toxicity of Pesticides 745.5.1.5 Disruption of Endocrine System 745.5.2 Carcinogenicity 765.5.2.1 Neurological and Neuro-developmental Effects 785.5.2.2 Parkinson’s Disease (PD) 785.5.2.3 Immunologic Effects 785.5.2.4 Reproductive Effects 785.5.2.5 Estrogenic Effects of Pesticides on Human Estrogen-Sensitive Cells 795.5.2.6 Diethyl Stilbestrol (DES) Syndrome (Model for Estrogenic Chemicals Exposure in the Environment) 795.5.2.7 Developmental Effects 795.6 Other Health Problems 805.6.1 Eye Problems 805.6.2 Respiratory Problems 805.6.3 Determination of Pollution Potential of Pesticides 805.7 Conclusion 81References 826 Microbiome as Sensitive Markers for Risk Assessment of Pesticides 89Upma Singh, Varsha Ashok Walvekar and Shilpi Sharma6.1 Introduction 896.2 The Rhizosphere 906.3 Effect of Chemical Pesticides on Soil Microbial Communities 916.4 Effect of Pesticides on Plant Growth Parameters as a Result of Impact on Microbiome 956.5 Impact of Safer Alternatives, Biological Pesticides 966.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 102Acknowledgment 102References 1027 Arms Race between Insecticide and Insecticide Resistance and Evolution of Insect Management Strategies 109Pritam Chattopadhyay and Goutam Banerjee7.1 Introduction 1097.2 Different Types of Insecticide 1107.3 Different Types of Insecticide Resistance 1167.3.1 Cross Insecticide Resistance 1167.3.2 Multiple Insecticide Resistance 1167.3.3 Stable Insecticide Resistance 1167.3.4 Unstable Insecticide Resistance 1167.4 Reasons for Insecticide Resistance 1177.5 Mechanisms of Insecticide Resistance 1187.5.1 Alterations in Insecticide Detoxification Capacity 1187.5.2 Alteration of Toxin-Receptor Interactions 1187.5.3 Alterations in Detoxification Metabolism 1197.5.4 Alterations in Insecticide Penetration 1197.5.5 Other Potential Mechanisms of Resistance 1197.5.5.1 Induced Resistance 1197.5.5.2 Behavioral Resistance 1197.6 Factors Influencing Insecticide Resistance 1197.6.1 Biological and Ecological Factors 1207.6.2 Genetic Factors 1217.6.3 Operational Factors 1227.7 Managing Pesticide Resistance 1227.7.1 Insecticide Resistance Database 1227.7.2 Chemical Use Strategies for Resistance Management 1227.7.2.1 Management by Moderation 1227.7.2.2 Management by Multiple Attacks 1237.7.2.3 Management by Saturation 1237.7.3 Reactive Resistance Management 1237.7.4 Proactive Resistance Management 1237.7.5 Resistance Management as a Component of IPM 1237.8 Technical Strategies to Combat Insecticide Resistance 1237.8.1 Searching and Characterizing New and Novel Insecticide 1237.8.2 Amending Biocontrol 1247.8.3 Exploring Novel Insect Pest Resistant Varieties 1247.8.3.1 Plant Immunity and Insect Resistance 1247.8.4 Combining Known Insecticides in Appropriate Proportion 1247.8.5 Modifying Known Insecticidal Toxins 1257.9 Future Perspective 125Acknowledgments 125Conflict of Interest 125References 1268 Agricultural Herbicides and Fungi in Soil Exposed to Herbicides 131Barberis Carla, Magnoli Carina, Carranza Cecilia, Benito Nicolás and Aluffi Melisa8.1 Introduction 1318.2 General Aspects of Main Herbicides 1328.2.1 Clodinafop Propargyl 1328.2.2 Toxicity of CF 1328.2.3 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid 1338.2.3.1 Toxicity of 2,4-D 1338.2.4 Glyphosate 1338.2.4.1 Toxicity of GP 1338.2.5 Atrazine 1348.2.5.1 Toxicity of Atrazine 1348.2.6 Metolachlor 1358.2.6.1 Toxicity of Metolachlor 1358.2.7 Diuron 1368.2.7.1 Toxicity of Diuron 1368.2.8 Imazapyr 1378.2.8.1 Toxicity of Imazapyr 1378.2.9 Pendimethalin 1378.2.9.1 Toxicity of Pendimethalin 1388.2.10 Paraquat 1388.2.10.1 Toxicity of PQ 1388.3 Biodegradation of Most-Used Herbicides by Fungi 1388.3.1 2,4-D Degradation 1398.3.2 Atrazine Degradation 1408.3.3 Metolachlor Degradation 1408.4 Effect of Herbicides on Fungi 1418.4.1 Glyphosate 1418.4.2 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid and Others Herbicides 1428.5 Effect of Herbicides on Toxicogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins Production 1448.6 Effect of Herbicides on Phytopathogen Fungi 1458.7 Conclusions 146References 1469 Pesticides Usage, Uptake and Mode of Action in Plants with Special Emphasis on Photosynthetic Characteristics 159Nivedita Chaudhary, Krishna Kumar Choudhary, S.B. Agarwal and Madhoolika Agrawal9.1 Introduction 1599.1.1 Usage and Requirement of Pesticides on Plants 1609.1.1.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 1619.1.1.2 Cultural Control 1619.1.1.3 Mechanical Control 1629.1.1.4 Biological Control 1629.1.1.5 Genetic Control 1629.1.1.6 Chemical Control 1629.1.2 Generalized Mode of Action and Uptake of Pesticides in Plants 1629.2 Effects of Pesticides on the Physiological Characteristics of the Plants 1669.2.1 Chlorophyll Fluorescence Affected by the Pesticides 1689.2.2 Pesticides Affect Chlorophyll Content in the Plants 1719.2.3 Effect of Pesticides on Photosynthesis 1719.2.4 Effects of Pesticides on Stomatal Conductance, Transpiration and Dark Respiration 1739.3 Beneficial and Detrimental Effects of Pesticides 1739.3.1 Beneficial Effects 1749.3.2 Detrimental Effects 1749.4 Conclusions 175Acknowledgments 175References 17510 Botanical Pesticides for Eco-Friendly Pest Management: Drawbacks and Limitations 181Christos A. Damalas and Spyridon D. Koutroubas10.1 Introduction 18110.2 Overview of Botanical Pesticides 18210.3 Drawbacks and Limitations 18410.4 Quality of Raw Material 18410.5 Product Standardization 18510.6 Rapid Degradation 18610.7 Short Shelf-Life 18610.8 Raw Material Availability 18710.9 Safety of Botanical Pesticides 18710.10 Regulatory Approval 18810.11 Future Perspectives 18810.12 Conclusions 189References 19011 Pesticide Interactions with Foodstuffs: Case Study of Apple 195Géraldine Giacinti, Christine Raynaud and Valérie Simon11.1 Introduction 19511.2 Apple Biology 19611.2.1 General Botanical Presentation 19611.2.2 Plant Structural Biochemistry 19611.2.3 Chemical Composition of the Tissues of the Fruit of Malus domestica Borkh 19711.3 Pesticide Inputs 19811.3.1 Chemical Composition of Pesticides 19911.3.1.1 Active Molecules 19911.3.1.2 Surfactants 19911.3.1.3 Other Additives 19911.3.2 Identification of Pesticides Currently Used in French Apple Orchards 20011.4 Pesticide-Fruit Interactions 20011.4.1 Epidermis Structure and Function in Apple 20111.4.2 Two Diffusion Pathways in the Cuticle 20211.4.3 Study of the Interactions Between Pesticides and Cuticle 20411.4.3.1 Membrane Transport Mechanism for the Active Molecules of Pesticides 20511.4.3.2 Cuticular Membrane Permeability 20511.4.3.3 Identification of the Chemical Compounds of the Cuticle Interacting with Pesticides 20611.4.4 Identification of Factors Likely to Influence Pesticide-Cuticule Interactions 20911.4.4.1 Pesticide Formulations 20911.4.4.2 Environmental Conditions 21111.4.4.3 Pesticide Molecule Degradation in Plants: New Interactions 21211.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects 213References 21412 Multiresidue Pesticide Analysis in Cabbage and Cauliflower Using Gas Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) 221Mahadev C. Khetagoudar, Mahadev B. Chetti, A. V. Raghu and Dinesh C. Bilehal12.1 Introduction 22112.2 Experimental Details 22212.2.1 Apparatus 22212.2.2 Reagents 22312.2.3 Preparation of Reference Standard Solutions 22312.2.4 Preparation of Sample 22412.2.5 GC- MS/MS Analysis 22412.2.6 Validation Study 22412.3 Results and Discussion 22412.3.1 Optimization of GC Oven Programming 22412.3.2 Optimization of MS/MS 22612.3.3 QuEChERS Procedure for Extraction 22612.3.4 Recovery Experiments of Spiked Samples 22712.3.5 Method Performance 22712.4 Applicability of the Developed Method 22912.4.1 Sampling 22912.5 Conclusion 230Acknowledgments 230References 23013 Pesticide Toxicity Amelioration in Plants by Plant Hormones 233Palak Bakshi, Shagun Bali, Parminder Kaur, Anjali Khajuria, Kanika Khanna, Bilal Ahmad Mir, Puja Ohri and Renu Bhardwaj13.1 Introduction 23313.2 Physico-Chemical Methods 23713.2.1 Chemical Detoxification and Disposal Methods 23713.2.2 Physical Detoxification and Disposal Methods 23813.3 Enzymatic Methods 23913.3.1 Oxidoreductases 24013.3.2 Hydrolases 24013.3.3 Lyases 24113.4 Plant Growth Regulators 24113.4.1 Auxins 24113.4.2 Abscisic Acid 24313.4.3 Brassinosteroids 24413.4.4 Salicylic Acid 24613.4.5 Jasmonic Acid 24713.4.6 Polyphenols 24813.5 Conclusion 249References 24914 Transgenic Strategies to Develop Resistant Plant Against the Pathogen and Pest 259Neeraj Kumar Dubey, Kapil Gupta, Pawan Yadav, Jogeswar Panigrahi and Aditya Kumar Gupta14.1 Introduction 25914.2 Techniques Used for Transgenic Plant Development 26014.3 Transgenic Plants Developed Against Pathogens and Pests 26314.3.1 Virus 26314.3.2 Bacteria 26614.3.3 Fungi 26614.3.4 Nematodes 27014.3.5 Insects 27214.3.6 Parasitic Weeds 27614.4 Regulation of Insecticidal Gene Expression 27814.5 Advantages 27914.6 Disadvantages 27914.7 Future Strategies 279Acknowledgments 280References 280Index 291