Particle Adhesion and Removal

Kashmiri Lal Mittal was employed by the IBM Corporation from 1972 through 1993. Currently, he is teaching and consulting worldwide in the broad areas of adhesion as well as surface cleaning. He has received numerous awards and honors including the title of doctor honoris causa from Maria Curie-SkBodowska University, Lublin, Poland. He is the editor of more than 115 books dealing with adhesion measurement, adhesion of polymeric coatings, polymer surfaces, adhesive joints, adhesion promoters, thin films, polyimides, surface modification, surface cleaning, and surfactants. Dr. Mittal is also the Founding Editor of the journal Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives. Ravi Jaiswal is a chemical engineer and an active researcher in the field of surface and interfacial science. He has authored more than 10 original research publications in the field of particle adhesion and removal. He has delivered more than 10 technical talks in the national and international conferences covering topics relevant to particle adhesion. He is a regular reviewer of the research manuscripts published in the journal of IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing. He has been awarded 'Leighton H. Peebles Award' by The Adhesion Society in 2009 in the recognition to his outstanding graduate research contribution in the field of adhesion science and technology. Ravi completed his bachelor degree in chemical engineering from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, India in 2004. He graduated with PhD in chemical engineering from Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN, USA in 2008. He is currently employed at Sun Edison (formerly MEMC Electronic Materials), St. Peters, MO as a research scientist.

• Preface xv Part 1: Particle Adhesion: Fundamentals 1 1 Fundamental Forces in Particle Adhesion 3Stephen Beaudoin, Priyanka Jaiswal, Aaron Harrison, Jennifer Laster, Kathryn Smith, Melissa Sweat, and Myles Thomas 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Various Forces in Particle Adhesion 4 1.3 Summary 69 References 70 2 Mechanics of Particle Adhesion and Removal 81Goodarz Ahmadi 2.1 Introduction 81 2.2 Models 83 2.3 Simulations Results 96 2.4 Summary and Conclusions 99 Acknowledgements 100 References 100 3 Microscopic Particle Contact Adhesion Models and Macroscopic Behavior of Surface Modified Particles 105Katja Mader-Arndt, Zinaida Kutelova, and Jürgen Tomas 3.1 Introduction 105 3.2 Constitutive Contact Models 107 3.3 Macroscopic Powder Behavior – Continuum Mechanics Approach 121 3.4 Surface Modification to Alter the Adhesion Properties 124 3.5 Experimental Measurements of the Adhesion Forces 130 3.6 Summary and Conclusions 146 Acknowledgements 147 List of Symbols 147 References 148 4 Characterization of Single Particle Adhesion: A Review of Recent Progress 157Armin Saeedi Vahdat and Cetin Cetinkaya 4.1 Introduction 157 4.2 Background 159 4.3 Recent Developments 167 4.4 Conclusions and Remarks 193 Acknowledgments 194 List of Symbols 194 References 196 Part 2: Particle Removal Techniques 201 5 High Intensity Ultrasonic Cleaning for Particle Removal 203Sami B. Awad and Nadia F. Awad 5.1 Introduction 204 5.2 Ultrasound and Ultrasonics 204 5.3 Cavitation Phenomenon 207 5.4 Generation of Ultrasound - Transducers 211 5.5 Ultrasonic Generators 217 5.6 Principles of Ultrasonic Cleaning for Particle Removal 219 5.7 Determination of Residual Particles on Surfaces 223 5.8 Ultrasonic Aqueous Cleaning Equipment and Process 225 5.9 Precision Cleaning 228 5.10 Contaminants 228 5.11 Ultrasonic Cavitation Forces and Surface Cleaning 230 5.12 Cleaning Chemistry 232 5.13 Mechanism of Cleaning 236 5.14 Cavitation Erosion 238 5.15 Summary 239 References 239 6 Megasonic Cleaning for Particle Removal 243Manish Keswani, Rajesh Balachandran, and Pierre Deymier 6.1 Introduction 243 6.2 Principles of Megasonic Cleaning 247 6.3 Particle Removal Mechanisms During Megasonic Cleaning 259 6.4 Types of Megasonic Systems 262 6.5 Particle Removal and Feature Damage in Megasonic Cleaning 264 6.6 Summary 274 References 274 7 High Speed Air Jet Removal of Particles from Solid Surfaces 281Kuniaki Gotoh 7.1 Introduction 281 7.2 Fundamental Characteristics of the Air Jet 282 7.3 Fundamentals of Air Jet Particle Removal 286 7.4 New Methods Using Air Jet 300 7.5 Summary and Prospect 307 List of Symbols 308 References 309 8 Droplet Spray Technique for Particle Removal 313James T. Snow, Masanobu Sato, and Takayoshi Tanaka 8.1 Introduction 313 8.2 Droplet Impact Phenomena 314 8.3 Cleaning Process Window 318 8.4 Droplet Spray Technique for Semiconductor Wafer Cleaning 324 8.5 Summary 331 References 331 9. Laser-Induced High-Pressure Micro-Spray Process for Nanoscale Particle Removal 337Daehwan Ahn, Changho Seo, and Dongsik Kim 9.1 Introduction 337 9.2 Concept of Droplet Opto-Hydrodynamic Cleaning (DOC) 340 9.3 Micro-Spray Generation by LIB 343 9.4 Mechanisms of Particle Removal by Laser-Induced Spray Jet 344 9.5 Generation of Micro-Spray Jet 345 9.6 Nanoscale Particle Removal 352 9.7 Summary 360 References 360 10 Wiper-Based Cleaning of Particles from Surfaces 365Brad Lyon and Jay Postlewaite 10.1 Introduction 366 10.2 Basic Mechanism of Wiping for Cleaning of Particles and Other Contaminants 371 10.3 Various Types of Wipers 379 10.4 Proper Ways to Carry Out Wiping or How to Use Wipers Properly 390 10.5 Characterization of Wipers 396 10.6 Results Obtained Using Wiping 398 10.7 Future Directions 405 10.8 Summary 406 References 408 11 Application of Strippable Coatings for Removal of Particulate Contaminants 411Rajiv Kohli 11.1 Introduction 411 11.2 Coating Description 412 11.3 Types of Strippable Coatings 413 11.4 Issues with Strippable Coatings 426 11.5 Precision Cleaning Applications 427 11.6 Summary 443 Disclaimer 443 References 443 12 Cryoaerosol Cleaning of Particles from Surfaces 453Souvik Banerjee 12.1 Introduction 453 12.2 History of Cryoaerosol Cleaning 455 12.3 Thermodynamics of Cryoaerosol Processes 456 12.4 Cleaning Mechanism 461 12.5 Factors Affecting Cleaning Performance 462 12.6 Results Obtained by Cryoaerosol Cleaning  469 12.7 Summary and Prospects 473 References 474 13 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Cleaning: Relevance to Particle Removal 477Rajiv Kohli 13.1 Introduction 477 13.2 Surface Cleanliness Levels 478 13.3 Dense Phase Fluids 479 13.4 Principles of Supercritical CO2 Cleaning 489 13.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Supercritical CO2 Cleaning 493 13.6 Applications 496 13.7 Summary and Conclusions  502 Acknowledgement 503 Disclaimer 503 References 503 14 The Use of Surfactants to Enhance Particle Removal from Surfaces 519Brian Grady 14.1 Introduction 519 14.2 Solid-Solid Interactions 520 14.3 Introduction to Surfactants 524 14.4 Surfactant Adsorption at Solid Surfaces 529 14.5 Surfactants and Particulate Removal 535 14.6 Prospects 539 14.7 Summary 540 Acknowledgements 540 References 540 Index 543