Oxide Electronics

Asim Ray, Emeritus Professor at Brunel University London. His research focus is on organic photonics and the combination of optical and nanotechnological techniques to develop a new generation of devices. He is a fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology and the Institute of Physics and has published over 250 papers and served as Editor in Chief of the Institution of Engineering and Technology in the United Kingdom.Series EditorsArthur Willoughby University of Southampton, Southampton, UKPeter Capper Ex‐Leonardo MW Ltd, Southampton, UKSafa Kasap University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada

• Series Preface xiiiPreface xvList of Contributors xvii1 Graphene Oxide for Electronics 1Fenghua Liu, Lifeng Zhang, Lijian Wang, Binyuan Zhao and WeipingWu1.1 Introduction 11.2 Synthesis and Characterizations of Graphene Oxide 21.2.1 Chemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO) 21.2.2 Microwave Method 21.2.3 Plasma Method 31.2.4 Laser Method 41.3 Energy Harvest Applications of Graphene Oxide 51.3.1 Solar Cells 51.3.2 Solar Thermal Energy Harvest Devices 71.4 Energy Storage Applications of Graphene Oxide 71.4.1 Supercapacitors 71.4.2 Batteries 101.5 Electronic Device Applications of Graphene Oxide 121.6 Large Area Electronics Applications of Graphene Oxide 13References 162 Flexible and Wearable Graphene-Based E-Textiles 21Nazmul Karim, Shaila Afroj, Damien Leech and Amr M. Abdelkader2.1 Introduction to Wearable E-Textiles 212.2 Synthesis of Graphene Derivatives 222.2.1 Graphene Oxide 222.2.2 Reduced Graphene Oxide 242.3 Graphene-BasedWearable E-Textiles 252.3.1 Graphene-Based Textile Fibres 262.3.2 Graphene-Coated Textiles 272.3.3 Graphene-PrintedWearable E-Textiles 282.3.3.1 Screen Printing 302.3.3.2 Inkjet Printing 302.4 Surface Pre- and Post-Treatment of Substrates 322.5 Applications 342.5.1 Sensors 342.5.2 Supercapacitor 362.5.3 Rechargeable Batteries 382.5.4 Optoelectronics 392.6 Challenges and Outlook 40References 413 Magnetic Interactions in the Cubic Mott Insulators NiO, MnO, and CoO and the Related Oxides CuO and FeO 51David J. Lockwood andMichael G. Cottam3.1 Introduction 513.2 Spin–Spin Interactions 523.2.1 Magnetic Ordering Below TN 523.2.2 Magnetostriction 533.2.3 Magnetic and Electronic Excitations 543.3 Spin–Phonon Interactions 593.3.1 Phonon and Magnon Temperature Dependences 603.3.2 Phonon Mode Splitting Below TN 623.4 Other Related Materials 643.4.1 Cupric Oxide 643.4.2 Iron Monoxide 653.5 Conclusions 68Acknowledgments 68References 684 High-𝜿 Dielectric Oxides for Electronics 75Tong Zhang, Xiaoyang Zhang, Yi Yang and WeipingWu4.1 Introduction of High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides 754.1.1 Group IIIA Dielectric Oxides 774.1.2 Group IIIB High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides 774.1.3 Group IVB High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides 774.2 The Deposition of High-𝜅 Oxide Dielectrics 784.3 High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides for Field-Effect Transistors 804.3.1 High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides for the MOSFETs 804.3.2 High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides for Tunnel Field-Effect Transistors 844.4 High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides for Memory Devices 854.4.1 High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides for DRAM 854.4.2 High-𝜅 Dielectric Oxides for ReRAM 87References 885 Low Temperature Growth of Germanium Oxide Nanowires by Template Based Self Assembly and their Raman Characterization 93Raisa Fabiha, Abigail Casey, Gregory Triplett and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay5.1 Introduction 935.2 Synthesis 935.3 Characterization 965.4 Raman Measurements 965.5 Conclusion 98References 996 Electronic Phenomena, Electroforming, Resistive Switching, and Defect Conduction Bands in Metal-Insulator-Metal Diodes 101ThomasW. Hickmott6.1 Introduction 1016.2 Experimental 1036.3 Electroforming, Electroluminescence, and Electron Emission 1046.3.1 Electroforming of Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 1046.3.2 Electroluminescence from Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 1046.3.3 Electron Emission from Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 1056.3.4 VCNR, EL, and EM in Other Insulators 1076.3.5 Temperature Dependence of EM 1086.4 Electrode Effects in Resistive Switching of Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 1096.4.1 Resistive Switching in Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 1096.4.2 Resistive Switching at Low Temperatures 1096.4.3 Structure in I-V Curves of Electroformed Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 1106.5 Conduction, Electroluminescence, and Photoconductivity Before Electroforming MIM Diodes 1126.5.1 Conduction in Nb-Nb2O5-Au Diodes 1126.5.2 Electroluminescence in Nb-Nb2O5-Au Diodes 1126.5.3 Conduction and Electroluminescence in MIM Diodes with TiO2 and Ta2O5 1156.5.4 Photoconductivity in MIM Diodes 1156.6 Discussion 1186.6.1 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Al2O3 1196.6.2 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Nb2O5 1216.6.3 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Insulators 1236.7 Summary and Conclusions 125References 1257 Lead Oxide as Material of Choice for Direct Conversion Detectors 129Alla Reznik and Oleksii Semeniuk7.1 Introduction 1297.2 Crystal Structure and Electronic Properties of PbO 1307.2.1 Crystal Structure of Tetragonal PbO (𝛼-PbO) 1317.2.2 Crystal Structure of Orthorhombic PbO (𝛽-PbO) 1327.2.3 Electronic Properties of 𝛼- and 𝛽-PbO 1337.3 Deposition Process of PbO Layers 1357.4 Charge Transport Mechanism in Lead Oxide 1477.4.1 Electron Transport in poly-PbO 148References 1518 ZnO Varistors: From Grain Boundaries to Power Applications 157Felix Greuter8.1 Introduction 1578.2 Manufacturing Process of ZnO Varistors 1608.3 Microstructure and Grain Boundaries 1628.4 Grain Boundary Potential Barriers 1688.5 The ‘Double Schottky Barrier Defect Model’ 1748.6 Hot Electron Effects Controlling the Breakdown Region 1818.7 Hot Electron Effects and Dynamic Response 1858.8 From Single Grain Boundaries to Microstructures and Varistor Devices 1968.9 Ageing and Long-Term Stability of Varistor Materials 2078.10 Energy Absorption Capability and High Current Impulse Stresses 2188.11 Summary and Outlook 223Acknowledgements 226References 2269 Fundamental Properties and Power Electronic Device Progress of Gallium Oxide 235Xuanhu Chen, Chennupati Jagadish and Jiandong Ye9.1 Introduction 2359.2 Electronic Properties and Defects of Ga2O3 2369.2.1 Bulk Crystals, Epitaxy, and n–type Doping 2379.2.2 Electronic Band Structure and Feasibility of p–type Doping 2409.2.3 Defect Behaviour in Bulk Crystals and Epitaxial Films 2459.3 Basic Device Characteristics 2509.3.1 Metal-Semiconductor Contact 2509.3.1.1 Barrier Formation 2509.3.1.2 Image-Force Lowering 2529.3.1.3 Carrier Transport and Breakdown 2549.3.2 Physics of Deep Depletion Ga2O3 MOSFETs 2579.3.2.1 Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Capacitors 2579.3.2.2 Basic Device Characteristics of DepletionMode MOSFETs Based on Ga2O3 2709.3.2.3 Approaches to Enhancement-Mode 𝛽-Ga2O3 MOSFETs 2809.3.3 Relevant Figure of Merit in Ga2O3 2829.4 Ga2O3 Schottky Rectifiers 2869.4.1 Edge Terminations 2879.4.2 Ga2O3 Schottky Rectifiers 2959.4.3 Ga2O3 p-n Heterojunction Diodes 3019.5 Ga2O3 Transistors 3079.5.1 Ohmic Contacts to Ga2O3 3079.5.2 Dielectric Materials for Ga2O3 and MOSCaps 3089.5.3 Lateral Ga2O3 FETs 3139.5.4 𝛽-Ga2O3 MODFETs 3249.5.5 Vertical Ga2O3 MOSFETs 3309.6 Summary 335References 33610 Emerging Trends, Challenges, and Applications in Solid-State Laser Cooling 353Jyothis Thomas, LauroMaia, Yannick Ledemi, YounesMessaddeq and Raman Kashyap10.1 Introduction 35310.2 Theory 35510.3 Experimental Design Considerations for Cooling 35710.3.1 Experimental Setups Used for Solid-state Laser Cooling 35710.3.1.1 Crystals 35710.3.1.2 Glasses 35810.3.1.3 Silica Glass Optical Fibres 36010.3.1.4 Semiconductor Nanoribbons 36110.3.2 Techniques to Analyse Background Absorption (𝛼b) Coefficient 36110.3.3 Temperature Measurement Techniques in Solid-State Laser Cooling 36210.3.3.1 Thermal Imaging 36210.3.3.2 Photoluminescence (PL)Thermometry 36310.3.3.3 Temperature Measurement Using Fibre Bragg Gratings 36310.3.3.4 Thermocouples 36410.3.3.5 Photothermal Deflection Spectroscopy (PTDS) 36410.3.3.6 Interferometric Technique 36410.4 Laser Cooling Materials and Properties 36510.4.1 Crystals 36610.4.2 Semiconductors 36810.4.3 Optical Fibres 37010.4.4 Nanocrystalline Powders 37110.5 Oxyfluoride Glass-Ceramics: Recent Developments in Solid-State Laser Cooling 37310.5.1 Earth-Doped Oxyfluoride Pseudo-Binary Glasses and Glass-Ceramics for Optical Refrigeration 37510.5.1.1 Materials and Methods 37610.5.1.2 Results and Discussion 37610.5.1.3 Summary on Pseudo-Binary Oxyfluoride Glass Ceramics 38110.6 Optical Cryocooler Devices 38210.7 Future Prospects and Conclusions 386Acknowledgements 388References 38811 ElectrodeMaterials for Sodium Ion Rechargeable Batteries 397TaniaMajumder, Anwesa Mukherjee, Debasish Das and S.B.Majumder11.1 Introduction – Review of the Constituents Used in Na – Ion Cells 39711.2 Cathode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells 39711.2.1 Transition Metal Oxides with Layered Structure 39711.2.2 Prussian Blue Analogue 39811.2.3 Sodium Superionic Conductors (NASICON) 39911.2.4 Other Cathodes 40011.3 Current Collectors, Binder, and Electrolyte 40011.4 Anode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells 40111.4.1 Carbonaceous Materials 40111.4.2 Alloying Type Anodes 40111.4.3 Conversion Type Anodes 40211.4.4 Other Anodes 40211.5 Outstanding Research Issues and Statement of the Problem 40211.6 Synthesis and Electrochemical Characterization of Electrodes 40411.6.1 Ilmenite NiTiO3 as Anode 40411.6.1.1 Synthesis and Characterization 40411.6.2 Electrochemical Characterization 40411.6.3 Electrophoretic Deposition of NiTiO3-Based Anode 40611.6.4 Electrochemical Performance of EPD Grown NTO Anodes 40811.7 Na2Ti3O7 as Anode 40911.7.1 Synthesis and Characterization 40911.7.2 Electrochemical Characterization of Pristine NaTO 41011.7.3 Electrochemical Performance of Carbon-Coated NaTO Anode 41111.7.4 Electrochemical Performance of NaTO/rGO Composite Anode 41311.8 PBA as Cathode 41411.8.1 Nickel Hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF) 41511.8.2 Iron Hexacyanoferrate (FeHCF) 41711.9 Summary and Conclusions 418Acknowledgement 419References 41912 Perovskites for Photovoltaics 423Hooman Mehdizadeh Rad, David Ompong and Jai Singh12.1 Introduction 42312.2 Diffusion Length 42412.2.1 Methodology 42512.2.2 Results of Simulated Diffusion Length and Discussions 42712.3 Open-Circuit Voltage 43212.3.1 Results of Open-Circuit Voltage and Discussions 43312.3.2 Bimolecular Recombination 43612.4 Influence of Density of Tail States at Interfaces 43712.4.1 Methods 43712.4.2 Results of Density of States and Discussions 44112.5 Conclusions 444References 44713 Advanced Characterizations of Oxides for Optoelectronic Applications 453U. Onwukwe, L. Anguilano and P. Sermon13.1 A Brief History of Optoelectronic Devices 45313.1.1 Semiconductors 45413.1.1.1 n-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors 45513.1.1.2 p-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors 45613.2 Interaction of Semiconductors and the Optoelectronic Phenomenon 45713.2.1 Direct Band Gap Semiconductors 45713.2.1.1 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors 45813.2.2 Oxides for Optoelectronics: Introduction 45913.2.3 Major Types of MO for Optoelectronics 46013.2.3.1 ITO 46013.2.3.2 ZnO 46013.2.3.3 AZO 46113.2.3.4 IGZO 46113.2.3.5 Perovskite Oxides 46213.2.3.6 Reduced Graphene Oxide-Miscellaneous Materials 46313.2.4 Method of Preparation of Optoelectronic Structures 46713.2.4.1 Nanowires/Nanorods 46713.2.4.2 Thin Films 46713.2.4.3 Mixed Morphologies Fabrication 46813.3 Characterization Techniques and their Use for Metal Oxide Optoelectronics 47013.3.1 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) 47013.3.2 Fourier-Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) 47113.3.2.1 Raman Spectroscopy 47313.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 47513.3.4 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 47713.3.5 Luminescence Techniques 48013.3.6 X-Ray Diffraction 48213.4 Facilities and Case Studies 48413.4.1 Case Study I – Leaf Biotemplate Derived TiO2 485References 48814 Future Tuning Optoelectronic Oxides from the Inside: Sol-Gel (TiO2)x-(SiO2)100-x 497M.P.Worsley, J.G. Leadley, R.M.A. MacGibbon, T. Salvesen, P.A. Sermon and J.M. Charnock14.1 Introduction and Background 49714.1.1 Photons and Wavetrains 49714.1.2 Optoelectronic Oxides and Devices 49714.1.3 TiO2 49814.1.4 TiO2-SiO2 49814.1.5 Alkoxide and Sol-Gel Routes to TiO2-SiO2 50014.1.6 Miscibility and the % TiO2 (x) Added in TiO2-SiO2 50014.1.7 Doping of TiO2-SiO2 50114.1.8 Local Structure in TiO2-SiO2 50114.2 Hypothesis 50314.3 Experimental 50414.3.1 Materials 50414.3.2 Preparations 50414.3.3 Characterization Methods 50414.4 Characterization Results 50514.5 Discussion on Future Automated CALPHAD Design, Dip-Coating Mechanical, and High-Throughput Screening of Novel Optoelectronic Oxides and Devices 51014.6 Conclusions on TiO2-SiO2 Use 510Acknowledgements 513References 51315 Binary Calcia-Alumina Thin Films: Synthesis and Properties and Applications 525Asim K. Ray15.1 Introduction 52515.2 Structural and Physical Properties of C12A7 52615.2.1 Thermal Stability 52815.2.2 Ionic Conductivity and Mechanisms of Oxide–Ion Migration 52915.3 Atomic and Electronic Structure 53015.3.1 Synthesis of C12A7 53115.3.2 Single Powders 53115.3.3 Single Crystal 53215.3.4 Polycrystalline Bulk 53315.3.5 Thin Film 53515.3.6 Ion Doping in C12A7 53615.3.6.1 Heat Treatment in H2 Atmosphere 53715.3.6.2 Thermoelectricity 53715.4 Optical Properties 54015.4.1 Reflectivity 54115.4.2 Luminescence 54215.5 Applications of C12A7 54315.6 Summary 545Acknowledgements 546References 54616 Oxide Cathodes 553Ian Alberts16.1 Historical Aspects 55316.1.1 The Edison Effect 55516.1.2 ArthurWehnelt 55516.1.3 Thermionic Emission Research in the Early Twentieth Century 55616.1.4 Oxide Cathodes for the CRT 55616.2 Physics of Thermionic Emission 55716.2.1 Derivation of the Richardson-Dushman Equation 55816.2.2 Space Charge and the Child-Langmuir Law 55916.3 Oxide Cathode Development 56016.3.1 The Barium-Coated Cathode 56116.3.2 The Rise and Subsequent Fall of the Impregnated Cathode 56216.3.3 Cermet Cathodes 56516.3.4 State of the Art 56516.4 Future Trends and Ongoing Applications 56716.4.1 Vacuum X-Ray Tubes 56816.4.2 Military Telecommunications 56816.4.3 Klystrons 57016.4.4 Gyrotron 57116.4.5 Thermionic Energy Conversion 57116.4.6 Triboelectric Nanogenerators 57316.4.7 Frontiers in Thermionic Research: Vacuum Nanoelectronics 57516.4.8 Field Emission Displays (FED) 57516.5 Conclusion 577                                                                             References 577Index 583