Origin of Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks

Noel James, Professor of Geology at Queen’s University, Canada, has, for over 40 years focused his research on carbonate sediments and rocks that range from the modern seafloor to the Archean, studying their origin via extensive marine and terrestrial fieldwork, petrography, and geochemistry.   He has taught numerous courses on oceanography, carbonate sedimentology, petroleum geology and the evolution of North America to undergraduates, graduate students, and professionals as well as editing or authoring nine scientific books.  He has been honoured many times by learned societies, is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and a Member of the Order of Canada.  Brian Jones, Distinguished University Professor (Geology) at the University of Alberta, Canada, has, for over 40 years taught numerous courses at the introductory and advanced level on carbonate sedimentology and diagenesis.  His research on carbonates has concentrated on the deposition and diagenesis of modern and Cenozoic deposits in the Caribbean, surface and subsurface Paleozoic rocks in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, many of which are prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs, and spring deposits worldwide. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and the first Middleton Medalist of the Geological Association of Canada.

• Preface xiii Acknowledgements xvABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xviiPART I: CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW 11 CARBONATE ROCKS AND PLATFORMS 5What are carbonate sedimentary rocks? 6Why should we care about studying these rocks? 6What is the scientific approach? 6The carbonate continuum 7How do carbonate sediments form? 9Where are carbonates produced and where do they accumulate? 10Tectonic settings and the nature of carbonate platforms 11How do we study carbonate sediments and rocks? 14Further reading 142 CARBONATE CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY 15Introduction 16Chemistry 16Carbonate precipitation and dissolution in the ocean 19Further reading 213 THE CARBONATE FACTORY 22Introduction 23Sediment production 23Component modification 28Karst and carbonate spring precipitates 36Further reading 374 MARINE CARBONATE FACTORIES AND ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS 38Introduction 39Environmental controls 39Benthic marine factories 46Pelagic marine factories 47Limestone classification schemes 48Further reading 505 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: MICROBES AND ALGAE 51Introduction 52Microbes and carbonates 52Microbialites 52Modern stromatolites 54Calcimicrobes 60Calcareous algae 60Further reading 666 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: SINGLE CELLS AND SHELLS 67Introduction 68Single]cell microfossils 68Macrofossils 71Further reading 787 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: ECHINODERMS AND COLONIAL INVERTEBRATES 79Introduction 80Echinoderms 80Sponges 82Bryozoans 85Corals 89Further reading 93Part II: CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS: AN OVERVIEW 958 LACUSTRINE CARBONATES 99Introduction 100Modern lakes: Zonation and classification 100Controls on lake sedimentation 101Lake sedimentation 103Lacustrine microbialites 107Classification of ancient lake deposits 108Further reading 1089 CARBONATE SPRINGS 110Introduction 111Spring systems 111Classification of springs 112Tufa, travertine, or sinter? 113Biota of spring systems 114Carbonate precipitation in spring systems 114Spring architecture 115Calcareous spring carbonate facies 117Further reading 12210 WARM]WATER NERITIC CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 123Introduction 124The carbonate factory 124Depositional systems 125Further reading 13411 THE COOL]WATER NERITIC REALM 135Introduction 136The Carbonate Factory 136Depositional settings 139Warm]temperate carbonates 141Cool]temperate carbonates 144Cold]water, polar carbonate systems 144The rock record 145Further reading 14812 MUDDY PERITIDAL CARBONATES 150Introduction 151Andros Island: The Bahamas 152Shark Bay: Western Australia 155The United Arab Emirates: Persian Gulf 156Stratigraphy 158The shallowing]upward peritidal cycle 158How do numerous peritidal cycles form? 160Temporal variations on the peritidal cycle theme 162Further reading 16313 NERITIC CARBONATE TIDAL SAND BODIES 165Introduction 166Tides and tidal currents 166Tidal sand bodies 167Bahamian platform ooid sand bodies 169Types of Bahamian platform sand bodies 170Some examples of Bahamian sand bodies 171Inter]island tidal ooid sand bodies (tidal deltas) 173Platform interior Bahamian ooid sand bodies 174Carbonate ramp tidal ooid sand bodies 175Carbonate sand bodies in straits and seaways 175Carbonate sands in flooded incised valleys 176Carbonate sands in hypersaline basins 177The rock record of tidal ooid sands 177Ancient sand body geometries 178Further reading 17814 MODERN REEFS 179Introduction 180The reef mosaic 180The coral reef growth window 182Shallow]water reefs 184Deep]water reefs 189Further reading 19115 ANCIENT REEFS 192Introduction 193The ancient reef factory 193Microbes, calcimicrobes, and calcareous algae 194Internal cavities 195Lithification 195Boring and bioerosion 196Reef stratigraphic nomenclature 196The spectrum of ancient reefs 198Reefs 198Reef mounds 199Reef geohistory 202Reef rock classification 206Further reading 21116 CARBONATE SLOPES 212Introduction 213Depositional bathymetry 213The deposits 213Contourites 217Slope types 219Temporal and spatial variability 220Further reading 22217 DEEP]WATER PELAGIC CARBONATES 223Introduction 224Universal controls 224Depositional controls 225Universal attributes 226Old pelagic sediments 226Young pelagic sediments 228The pelagic factory 228Chalk 229Associated sediments 233Ocean anoxia 233Further reading 23318 PRECAMBRIAN CARBONATES 234Introduction 235Precambrian carbonate systems 235The carbonate factory 235Reefs 242Further reading 24619 CARBONATE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 247Introduction 248Carbonate sequence stratigraphy 249Shallow]water reef sequence stratigraphy 250Photozoan rimmed platforms 252Evaporites and siliciclastics 255Heterozoan unrimmed carbonate platforms 255Ramps 257Higher]order cycles (parasequences) 258Depositional cycles 259Further reading 25920 THE TIME MACHINE 261Introduction 262Carbonates and plate tectonics 262Paleoclimate and paleoceanography 265Carbonates and the evolving biosphere 268Ocean acidification 271Further reading 271Part III: CARBONATE DIAGENESIS: AN OVERVIEW 27321 THE PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENTS OF DIAGENESIS 277Introduction to the processes 278Carbonate dissolution 278Carbonate precipitation 278The environments 281Synsedimentary marine diagenetic environment 282Meteoric diagenetic environment 282Burial diagenetic environment 284Dolomite and dolostone 285Further reading 28522 ANALYTICAL METHODS 286Introduction 287Petrography 288X]ray diffraction analysis 291Scanning electron microscopy 292Electron microprobe analysis 294Chemical analyses 294Further reading 29623 THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBONATE DIAGENESIS 297Introduction 298Trace elements and element ratios 298Stable isotopes 301Oxygen isotopes 301Carbon isotopes 303Stable isotope values for modern biogenic carbonates 304Carbonate stable isotope values through geologic time 305Strontium isotopes 307Further reading 30924 LIMESTONE: THE SYNSEDIMENTARY MARINE DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENT 311Introduction 312The setting 312Dissolution 312Precipitation 313Alteration 315Synsedimentary limestone 316Spatial distribution of early lithification 319Strandline diagenesis 320The rock record 322Isotopic composition of ancient marine cements 324Further reading 32525 METEORIC DIAGENESIS OF YOUNG LIMESTONES 326Introduction 327Processes 327Cements and cementation 330Diagenesis of calcite sediments 333Importance of grain size 333Diagenesis in different meteoric settings 335Importance of climate 335How long does it take? 335The ultimate product 336Geochemistry 337Further reading 33926 KARST AND WATER]CONTROLLED DIAGENESIS 341Introduction 342Surficial processes and products 342Surface karst facies 342Calcrete facies 346Subsurface karst facies 348Surface and subsurface carbonate geochemistry 355Further reading 35627 BURIAL DIAGENESIS OF LIMESTONE 357Introduction 358The setting 358Controlling factors 358Processes and products 359Burial cementation 362Burial diagenetic models 365Paragenesis via cement stratigraphy 368Further reading 36928 DOLOMITE AND DOLOMITIZATION 370Introduction 371Scientific approach 371Dolomite: the mineral 371Dolostone: the rock 373The limestone to dolostone transition 376Early diagenetic alteration of dolomite 376Dolomite geochemistry 380Further reading 38229 DOLOMITIZATION PROCESSES AND SYNSEDIMENTARY DOLOMITE 383Introduction 384What limits dolomite formation? 384How to form extensive dolomite 385The different types of dolomite and dolostone 386Synsedimentary (authigenic) dolomite 386Further reading 39030 SUBSURFACE DOLOMITIZATION AND DOLOSTONE PARAGENESIS 392Introduction 393Shallow]burial early]diagenetic dolomites 393Deep]burial late]diagenetic dolomites 396Synthesis 399Dolomite paragenesis 399Further reading 40231 DIAGENESIS AND GEOHISTORY 403Introduction 404Eogenetic diagenesis 404Approach 406Lowstand systems tract 406Transgressive systems tract 408Highstand systems tract 410Post]eogenetic diagenesis 411Further reading 41332 CARBONATE POROSITY 414Introduction 415Porosity 415Porosity measurement 415Permeability 416Types of porosity 416Porosity classification 421Porosity evolution through time 422Porosity and dolomitization 423The evolution of porosity 423Integration 425Further reading 426GLOSSARY 427INDEX 434