Nanomaterials in Clinical Therapeutics

Mainak Mukhopadhyay, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Biotechnology, JIS University, Kolkata, India. He obtained his PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology in Kharagpur, India in 2014. His research interests include enzymology, nanobiotechnology, and biomass conversion technology. He was awarded Petrotech Research Fellowship in 2008. In 2016 he was awarded the Early Career Research Award from DST-SERB. He has co-authored 15 peer-reviewed papers and three review papers, edited one book and 15 book chapters, and filed three patents.Arindam Kuila is an assistant professor at the Department of Bioscience & Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India. Previously, he worked as a research associate at Hindustan Petroleum Green R&D Centre, Bangalore, India. He gained his PhD from the Agricultural & Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India in 2013 in the area of lignocellulosic biofuel production. He has co-authored 18 peer-reviewed research papers and seven review papers, edited four books and eight book chapters, and filed five patents.

• Preface xixPart 1: History and Basic Principles of Nanotechnology 11 Introduction to Nanotechnology 3Rekha Sharma, Kritika S. Sharma and Dinesh Kumar1.1 Introduction 41.2 Nanoscale Materials: Importance 51.3 Nanotechnology: Historical Advances 81.4 Nanofabrication Methods in Nanotechnology 9         1.4.1 Top-Down Method 101.4.2 Bottom-Up Method 111.5 Carbon Nanoallotropes 131.5.1 Fullerene 131.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes 141.5.3 Graphene 151.6 Classification of the Nanomaterials 161.6.1 Based on Dimensions 161.6.2 Based on the Structural Configuration 171.7 Applications of Nanotechnology 181.7.1 Chip-Based Plasmonic Sensors 181.7.2 Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensors 201.7.3 Colloidal Nanoparticle-Based Plasmonic Sensors 211.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 23Acknowledgment 23References 242 Functional Principal of Nanotechnology in Clinical Research 33Kalyanee Bera, Biva Ghosh and Mainak Mukhopadhyay2.1 Introduction 342.2 Nanoparticles 362.3 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles 372.4 Metal Nanoparticles 372.4.1 Gold Nanoparticles 382.4.2 Silver Nanoparticles 392.4.3 Zinc Nanoparticles 392.5 Magnetic Nanoparticles 402.6 Ceramic Nanoparticles 412.7 Lipid Nanoparticles 412.8 Polymeric Nanoparticles (Nanoparticles Made of Polymers) 422.8.1 Synthetic 432.8.2 Natural 432.9 Hydrogel 442.10 Nanofibers 452.11 Nanocomposites 452.12 Nanotechnologies for Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis 462.12.1 Nanotechnology-Based Biochips and Microarrays 462.12.2 Protein Microarrays/Chips 472.12.3 Nanobiosensors 482.12.4 PEBBLE Nanosensors (Probes Encapsulated by Biologically Localized Embedding) 482.12.5 Quantum Dots 482.12.6 Fluorescence Microscopy for Chromosomal Changes 492.12.7 Nanobarcodes 492.12.8 Protein Biobarcode Assay 502.12.9 Cantilever Arrays 502.12.10 DNA-Protein and Nanoparticles Conjugates 512.12.11 Resonance Light Scattering Technology 522.12.12 Method of Colorimetric DNA Detection 522.12.13 Upcoming Phosphor Technology Based on Nanoparticles 532.13 Clinical Uses of Nanotechnology 532.13.1 Application of Nanocrystals in Immunohistochemistry 542.13.2 Detection of Illness Biomarkers 542.13.3 Disease Gene Detection 542.13.4 Detection of Microorganisms 552.13.5 Dental Nanotechnology 552.14 Nanofilm Applications 562.15 Nanomedicine Implementation 572.16 Future Prospects 582.17 Conclusion 58References 593 Application of Nanotechnology in Clinical Research: Present and Future Prospects 75Mansi Sharma, Pragati Chauhan, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar3.1 Introduction 763.2 Scope of Nanotechnology in Clinical Research 773.3 Classification 783.3.1 Nanomaterials 783.3.1.1 Nanocrystal 803.3.1.2 Nanostructures 813.3.2 Nanodevices 893.4 Applications of Nanotechnology 913.4.1 Drug Delivery 933.4.2 Cancer Treatment 933.4.3 Gene Therapy 953.4.4 Tissue Engineering 953.4.5 Wound Treatment 963.4.6 Visualization 963.4.7 Tuberculosis Treatment 973.4.8 In Ophthalmology 973.4.9 Neurodegenerative Treatment 973.4.10 Diabetes Treatment 983.4.11 Protein Detection 983.4.12 In Surgery 993.4.13 Antibiotic Resistance 993.4.14 Immune Response 993.4.15 Operative Dentistry 1013.4.16 Diagnostic Techniques 1023.5 Conclusion 103Acknowledgment 103References 104Part 2: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Nanomaterials 1154 Fermentation Process Versus Nanotechnology 117Nabya Nehal, Anushka Mathur, Modhumita Ganguli and Priyanka Singh4.1 Overview of Microbial Technology 1184.1.1 Biological Methodologies for Extraction and Purification of Biomolecules 1184.1.2 Recent Advancements in Bioprocess Technology 1194.1.2.1 Genetic Engineering and Random Mutagenesis 1204.1.2.2 Immobilization Techniques 1204.2 Nanotechnology 1234.2.1 Classification of Nanostructures 1254.2.1.1 Organic Nanocarriers 1264.2.1.2 Inorganic Nanocarriers 1274.2.2 Self-Assembly 1284.2.3 Methodology for Synthesis of Nanoparticles 1294.3 Biogenic Sources 1314.3.1 From Bacteria 1314.3.2 Filamentous Fungi 1334.3.3 Plants 1354.3.4 Microalgae 1354.4 The Extent of Biogenic Nanoparticles in Industrial Sectors 1394.4.1 Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sectors 1434.4.2 Environmental Remediation 1464.4.3 Food Sectors 148References 1585 Application of Geno-Sensors and Nanoparticles in Gene Therapy: A New Avenue for Gene Delivery 177Sharmili Roy, Monalisha Ghosh Dastidar, Vivek Sharma, Beom Soo Kim and Rajiv Chandra Rajak5.1 Introduction 1785.2 Inorganic Nanomaterials and Their Application in Gene Delivery 1795.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles 1805.2.2 Quantum Dots 1815.2.3 Gold, Silver, and Platinum Nanoparticles 1825.2.4 Graphene-Based Nanoparticles 1865.3 Carbon-Based Nanotubes and Their Applications in Gene Delivery 1875.4 Polymer-Based Nanomaterials and Their Applications in Gene Delivery 1885.5 Protein, Lipid, and Peptide-Based Nanomaterials and Their Advantages for Gene Delivery 1925.6 Conclusion: Challenges and Outlook 194References 1966 Flexuous Plant Viruses as Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications 205De Swarnalok6.1 Introduction 2056.2 Plant Virus Particle Structures 2076.2.1 Viruses With Icosahedral Symmetry 2076.2.2 Viruses with Helical Symmetry 2086.2.2.1 Rigid Rod-Like Viruses 2086.2.2.2 Flexuous Filament-Like Viruses 2096.3 Virus Nanoparticles and Virus-Like Particles 2096.3.1 VNPs 2096.3.2 VLPs 2106.4 Production Platforms for VNPs and VLPs 2106.4.1 VNPs/VLPs in Plants 2116.4.2 VLPs via In Vitro Assembly 2126.5 Functionalization of Viruses 2126.5.1 Genetic Engineering 2136.5.2 Chemical Conjugation 2136.5.3 Other Functionalization Strategies 2146.6 Uses of Flexuous Plant Viruses in Medicine 2146.6.1 Vaccination and Immunotherapy 2146.6.2 3D Tissue Engineering 2156.6.3 Drug Delivery and Targeting 2156.6.4 Bioimaging 2166.6.5 Biosensing 2176.7 Conclusions 217References 2187 Role of Plants in Nanoparticle Synthesis 225Tanya Kapoor, Md Azizur Rahman, Shally Pandit and Anand Prakash7.1 Introduction 2257.2 Characterization of Nanoparticles 2277.3 Classification of Nanoparticles 2277.4 Biochemical Synthesis of Nanoparticles 2287.5 Green Synthesis Approach for NPs 2327.6 Plants’ Role in the Green Synthesis of NPs 2327.7 Green Synthesis Using Enzymes 2347.8 Nanoparticles Role in Photosynthesis 2357.9 Applications of Green Synthesis NPs 2357.10 Conclusion 237References 2378 Static DNA Nanostructures and Their Applications 245Debalina Bhattacharya8.1 Introduction 2458.1.1 DNA Structure 2458.1.2 Types of DNA Structures 2478.2 Static DNA Nanostructures 2478.2.1 DNA Tile Assembly 2488.2.2 DNA Origami and Brick Assembly 2518.3 DNA Origami Nanostructure 2518.4 DNA Polyhedra 2528.5 DNA-Functionalized Nanoparticles 2538.6 Stability in Biological Fluid and Cellular Uptake of DNA-NSs and DNA-NPs 2548.7 Application 2558.7.1 DNA Nanostructures as Biosensors 2558.7.2 DNA in Therapeutics 2578.7.3 Photo Thermal Therapy and Photo Dynamic Therapy 2588.7.4 DNA-Based Enzyme Reactors 2598.7.5 DNA-Based Gene Delivery 2608.7.6 DNA Scaffolds for Nanophotonics 2618.7.7 Conclusion 261References 2629 Protein-Based Nanostructures 269Ditipriya Hazra and Amlan Roychowdhury9.1 Introduction 2699.2 Peptide-Based Nanoparticle 2709.3 Protein-Based Nanostructure 2719.3.1 Oligomerization of Protein 2729.3.2 Repeat Domain Proteins 2739.3.3 Protein-Based 2D and 3D Lattice Assembly of Nanoparticles 2749.3.4 Covalently Assembled Single Chain-Based Nanostructure 2749.4 Application of Protein-Based Nanostructures in Therapeutics 2759.4.1 Protein Nanoparticle for Drug Delivery 2759.4.2 Nanoparticle-Based Vaccines 2759.4.3 Hydrogel 277References 27810 Nanocomposites-Based Biodegradable Polymers 285Pragati Chauhan, Mansi Sharma, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar10.1 Introduction 28610.2 Nanocomposite 28710.3 Biodegradable Polymer 28810.4 Biopolymer 28910.5 Nanofillers 28910.6 Cellulose and Its Sources 28910.7 Nanocellulose 29110.8 Nanocellulose Composite Processing 29210.8.1 Melt Mixing Method 29310.8.1.1 Injection Molding Method 29410.8.1.2 Resin Transfer Molding Method 29510.8.1.3 Extrusion Method 29610.8.2 Solution Casting Method 29710.8.3 Particle Suspensions Method 29910.8.4 In-Situ Polymerization Method 30010.8.5 Layer-by-Layer Lamination Method 30310.9 Nanocomposites Used as Packaging Materials 30510.10 Future Perspective and Application 30610.11 Conclusions 307References 30811 Instrumentation for the Analysis and Characterization of Nanomaterials 317Andrea Komesu, Johnatt Oliveira, Débora Kono Taketa Moreira, Yvan Jesus Olortiga Asencios, João Moreira Neto and Luiza Helena da Silva Martins11.1 Introduction 31811.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy [SEM] 31911.3 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis [EDX] 32011.4 Atomic Force Microscopy [AFM] 32211.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy [TEM] 32311.6 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy [STM] 32511.7 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy 32711.8 Raman Spectroscopy 32911.9 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 33011.10 X-Ray Diffraction [XRD] 33211.11 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy [XPS] 33311.12 Zeta Potential 33511.13 Conclusions 336References 33712 Application of Microbial Nanoparticles 343Monika Yadav, Sneha Upreti and Priyanka Singh12.1 Introduction 34412.2 Categorization of Nanoparticles 34612.2.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 34612.2.1.1 Polymeric Micelles 34612.2.1.2 Nanosphere 34712.2.1.3 Nanocapsules 34712.2.1.4 Polymerosome 34712.2.1.5 Nanogels 34812.2.1.6 Dendrimers 34812.2.1.7 Nanocomplex 34912.2.2 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles 34912.2.2.1 Liposomes 34912.2.2.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 34912.2.2.3 Lipoplexes 34912.2.3 Inorganic Nanoparticles 35012.2.3.1 Gold Nanoparticles 35012.2.3.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles 35012.2.3.3 Silica Nanoparticles 35112.2.3.4 Quantum Dots 35112.2.3.5 Nanocarbons 35112.2.4 Bioinspired Nanoparticles 35212.2.4.1 Exosomes 35212.2.4.2 Protein Nanoparticles 35212.2.4.3 DNA Nanostructures 35212.2.5 Hybrid Nanoparticles 35312.2.5.1 Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles 35312.2.5.2 Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites 35312.2.5.3 Lipid-Polymer Nanoparticles (LPNs) 35412.3 Microbial-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles for Therapeutic and Biomedical Applications 35412.3.1 Bacteria 35512.3.2 Molds and Yeast 35612.3.3 Microalgae 35712.4 Agriculture and Food Nanotechnology 35812.4.1 Food Nanotechnology 35912.4.1.1 Food Processing 35912.4.1.2 Food Packaging 35912.4.2 Agriculture Nanotechnology 36012.4.3 Enzyme Nanotechnology 36012.5 Role of Nanoparticles in the Medical Field 36112.5.1 Nanoparticles Drug Delivery Applications 36212.5.1.1 Drug Loading 36212.5.1.2 Covalent Bonding (Prodrug) 36212.5.1.3 Noncovalent Encapsulation 36312.6 Application of Microbial Nanoparticles 36312.6.1 Application of NPs in Food Industry 36412.6.2 Applications of Nanoparticles in the Pharmaceuticals Industry 36812.6.2.1 Biopolymeric Nanoparticles in Detection, Diagnosis and Imaging 36912.6.2.2 In Drug Liberation 37012.6.2.3 In Magnetic Partition and Recognition 37212.6.3 Application of Nanoparticles in Cosmetic Sector 37312.6.4 Nanoparticles in Bioremediation 37512.6.4.1 Dendrimers in the Process of Bioremediation 37612.6.4.2 Carbon Nanoparticles in Bioremediation 37712.6.4.3 Biogenic Uraninite NMs in Bioremediation 37812.7 Conclusion 378References 37913 Bio-Nanostructures: Applications and Perspectives 393Tanya Kapoor, Shally Pandit and Anand Prakash13.1 Introduction 39313.2 Classification of Nanostructures 39413.2.1 Self-Assembled Nanostructures 39413.2.2 Carbon-Based Nanostructures 39413.2.3 Nanocellulose Nanostructures 39513.2.4 Graphene Oxide-Based Nanostructures 39513.2.5 Silica-Based Nanostructures 39613.3 Characterization Method of Nanostructures 39613.4 Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles 40113.5 Conclusion 404References 405Part 3: Application of Nanomaterials in Clinical Research 41114 Nanomaterials for Tissue Grafting 413Paramjeet Singh, Atanu Kotal and Avik Acharya Chowdhury14.1 Introduction 41414.2 Tissue Engineering 41514.2.1 Bone Tissue Engineering 41614.2.2 Cartilage Tissue Engineering 41814.2.3 Tissue Grafting 42014.3 What is Nanotechnology? 42214.4 Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles 42314.4.1 Nanomaterials 42314.4.1.1 Organic Nanomaterials 42314.4.1.2 Inorganic Nanomaterials 42414.4.1.3 Composite Nanomaterials 42414.4.2 Nanoparticles 42514.4.2.1 Nanoparticles as Bioactive Agents 43114.4.2.2 Scaffolds and Nanoparticles 43114.5 Future Prospects 43314.6 Conclusion 435References 43615 Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy 441Kaliyaperumal Rekha, Nalok Dutta, Muthu Thiruvengadam, Mohammad Ali Shariati, Muhammad Usman Khan, Muhammad Usman, Mihir Bhatta, Kunal Ghosh, Shaheer Arif and Muhammad Naeem15.1 Introduction 44215.2 Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery in Cancer Treatment 44215.3 Drug Nanocarriers Classification 44415.4 Organic Nanocarriers 44415.4.1 Liposomes 44415.4.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 44515.4.3 Polymer Nanoparticles 44615.4.4 Polymer Micelles 44615.4.5 Dendrimers 44615.4.6 Polymersomes 44715.4.7 Hydrogel Nanoparticles 44715.4.8 Mineral Nanoparticles 44815.5 Tumor Targeting by Nanoparticles 44815.6 Utilization of Nanoparticles in Imaging and Treatment for Cancer 44915.7 Use of Nanoparticles in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Breast Cancer 45015.8 The Use of Nanoparticles in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Brain Cancer 45115.9 Conclusion 452References 45216 Nanoantibiotics 459Rituparna Saha and Mainak Mukhopadhyay16.1 Introduction 46016.2 Nanoantibiotics—A Potent Alternative to Antibiotics? 46116.3 Developmental Strategy of Nanoantibiotics Over Antibiotics 46216.4 Mechanism of Action of Nanoantibiotics 46316.5 Common Functions of Nanoantibiotics 46316.6 Nanomaterials—A Suitable Source of Nanoantibiotics 46416.7 Types of Nanoantibiotics 46516.7.1 Through Direct Formulations 46516.7.1.1 Metal-Based Nanoparticles 46516.7.1.2 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 46616.7.1.3 Nanoemulsions 46616.7.1.4 Nanocomposites 46616.7.2 Through Indirect Formulations 46716.7.2.1 Polymers 46716.7.2.2 Dendrimers 46716.7.2.3 Hydrogels 46816.7.2.4 Liposomes 46816.8 Advantages of Nanoantibiotics 46816.9 Disadvantages of Nanoantibiotics 46916.10 Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria with Nanoantibiotics 46916.11 Treatment of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus with Nanoantibiotics 47016.12 Development of Targeted Therapy Using Nanoantibiotics 47016.13 Future Prospects of Nanoantibiotics 47116.14 Conclusion 471References 47217 Theranostic Nanomaterials and Its Use in Biomedicine 479Arka Mukhopadhyay17.1 Introduction 48017.2 Biomedical Payloads 48217.2.1 Imaging 48217.2.1.1 Optical Imaging 48217.2.1.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 48617.2.1.3 Computed Tomography 48617.2.1.4 Positron Emission Tomography 48617.2.1.5 Photo Acoustic Tomography 48617.2.1.6 Ultrasound 48817.2.1.7 Multimodal Image Therapy 48817.2.2 Photodynamic Therapy 48817.2.3 Targeted Gene Therapy 48917.2.4 Photothermal Therapy 48917.3 Carrier 49017.3.1 Polymers 49117.3.2 Lipids 49117.3.3 Dendrimers 49117.3.4 Inorganic Nanocarriers 49217.4 Theranostic Nanomaterials and Applications 49217.4.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles 49217.4.2 Quantum Dots 49317.4.3 Anisotropic Nanoparticles 49417.4.4 Upconverting Nanoparticles 49417.4.5 Carbon Nanotubes 49517.4.6 Dendrimers 49617.4.7 Other Nanomaterials 49617.4.7.1 Gold (Au) Nanoparticles (GNPs) 49617.4.7.2 Conjugated Polymers 49817.5 Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics 49917.6 Conclusions: Challenges and Future Perspectives 501References 503Appendix 509Index 511