Molecular Beam Epitaxy

Series Editors Arthur Willoughby University of Southampton, Southampton, UK Peter Capper formerly of SELEX Galileo Infrared Ltd, Southampton, UK Safa Kasap University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada Edited by Hajime Asahi Emeritus Professor, Osaka University, Japan Yoshiji Horikoshi Emeritus Professor, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

• List of Contributors xvSeries Preface xixPreface xxiPart I Fundamentals of MBE 11. History of MBE 3Tom Foxon1.1 Introduction 31.2 The MBE Process 41.3 Controlled n and p Doping 101.4 Modified Growth Procedures 101.5 Gas-Source MBE 111.6 Low-Dimensional Structures 111.7 III–V Nitrides, Phosphides, Antimonides and Bismides and Other Materials 131.8 Early MBE-Grown Devices 181.9 Summary 18Acknowledgments 18References 192. General Description of MBE 23Yoshiji Horikoshi2.1 Introduction 232.2 High-Vacuum Chamber System 242.3 Atomic and Molecular Beam Sources 252.4 Measurement of MBE Growth Parameters 282.5 Surface Characterization Tools for MBE Growth 312.6 Summary 37Acknowledgments 37References 383. Migration-Enhanced Epitaxy and its Application 41Yoshiji Horikoshi3.1 Introduction 413.2 Toward Atomically Flat Surfaces in MBE 423.3 Principle of MEE 443.4 Growth of GaAs by MEE 483.5 Incommensurate Deposition and Migration of Ga Atoms 493.6 Application of MEE Deposition Sequence to Surface Research 503.7 Application of MEE to Selective Area Epitaxy 513.8 Summary 54Acknowledgments 54References 554. Nanostructure Formation Process of MBE 57Koichi Yamaguchi4.1 Introduction 574.2 Growth of Quantum Wells 584.3 Growth of Quantum Wires and Nanowires 604.4 Growth of Quantum Dots 644.5 Conclusion 71References 725. Ammonia Molecular Beam Epitaxy of III-Nitrides 73Micha N. Fireman and James S. Speck5.1 Introduction 735.2 III-Nitride Fundamentals 745.3 Ammonia Molecular Beam Epitaxy 775.4 Ternary Nitride Alloys and Doping 825.5 Conclusions 86References 86Contents vii6. Mechanism of Selective Area Growth by MBE 91Katsumi Kishino6.1 Background 916.2 Growth Parameters for Ti Mask SAG 926.3 Initial Growth of Nanocolumns 946.4 Nitrogen Flow Rate Dependence of SAG 956.5 Diffusion Length of Ga Adatoms 966.6 Fine Control of Nanocolumn Arrays by SAG 986.7 Controlled Columnar Crystals from Micrometer to Nanometer Size 1006.8 Nanotemplate SAG of AlGaN Nanocolumns 1016.9 Conclusions and Outlook 103References 104Part II MBE Technology for Electronic Devices Application 1077. MBE of III-Nitride Semiconductors for Electronic Devices 109Rolf J. Aidam, O. Ambacher, E. Diwo, B.-J. Godejohann, L. Kirste, T. Lim, R. Quay, and P. Waltereit7.1 Introduction 1097.2 MBE Growth Techniques 1107.3 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistors on SiC Substrate 1187.4 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistors on Si Substrate 1237.5 HEMTs with Thin Barrier Layers for High-Frequency Applications 1257.6 Vertical Devices 130References 1328. Molecular Beam Epitaxy for Steep Switching Tunnel FETs 135Salim El Kazzi8.1 Introduction 1358.2 TFET Working Principle 1368.3 III–V Heterostructure for TFETs 1368.4 MBE for Beyond CMOS Technologies 1388.5 Doping 1398.6 Tunneling Interface Engineering 1428.7 MBE for III–V TFET Integration 1438.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 146Acknowledgments 146References 147Part III MBE for Optoelectronic Devices 1499. Applications of III–V Semiconductor Quantum Dots in Optoelectronic Devices 151Kouichi Akahane and Yoshiaki Nakata9.1 Introduction: Self-assembled Quantum Dots 1519.2 Lasers Based on InAs Quantum Dots Grown on GaAs Substrates 1529.3 InAs QD Optical Device Operating at Telecom Band (1.55 μm) 1589.4 Recent Progress in QD Lasers 1649.5 Summary 165References 16510. Applications of III–V Semiconductors for Mid-infrared Lasers 169Yuichi Kawamura10.1 Introduction 16910.2 GaSb-Based Lasers 17010.3 InP-Based Lasers 17010.4 InAs-Based Lasers 17310.5 Conclusion 174References 17411. Molecular Beam Epitaxial Growth of Terahertz Quantum Cascade Lasers 175Harvey E. Beere and David A. Ritchie11.1 Introduction 17511.2 Epitaxial Challenges 179References 18912. MBE of III-Nitride Heterostructures for Optoelectronic Devices 191C. Skierbiszewski, G. Muziol, H. Turski, M. Siekacz, K. Nowakowski-Szkudlarek, A. Feduniewicz- ̇ Zmuda, P. Wolny, and M. Sawicka12.1 Introduction 19112.2 Low-Temperature Growth of Nitrides by PAMBE 19212.4 New Concepts of LDs with Tunnel Junctions 20512.5 Summary 206Acknowledgments 207References 20713. III-Nitride Quantum Dots for Optoelectronic Devices 211Pallab Bhattacharya, Thomas Frost, Shafat Jahangir, Saniya Deshpande, and Arnab Hazari13.1 Introduction 21113.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy of InGaN/GaN Self-organized Quantum Dots 21213.3 Quantum Dot Wavelength Converter White Light-Emitting Diode 22013.4 Quantum Dot Lasers 22313.5 Summary and Future Prospects 229References 23014. Molecular-Beam Epitaxy of Antimonides for Optoelectronic Devices 233Eric Tournie14.1 Introduction 23314.2 Epitaxy of Antimonides: A Brief Historical Survey 23514.3 Molecular-Beam Epitaxy of Antimonide 23614.4 Outlook 243Acknowledgments 244References 24415. III–V Semiconductors for Infrared Detectors 247P. C. Klipstein15.1 Introduction 24715.2 InAsSb XBn Detectors 25115.3 T2SL XBp Detectors 25515.4 Conclusion 262Acknowledgments 262References 26216. MBE of III–V Semiconductors for Solar Cells 265Takeyoshi Sugaya16.1 Introduction 26516.2 InGaP Solar Cells 26616.3 InGaAsP Solar Cells Lattice-Matched to GaAs 26816.4 InGaAsP Solar Cells Lattice-Matched to InP 27116.5 Growth of Tunnel Junctions for Multi-Junction Solar Cells 27216.6 Summary 277References 277Part IV Magnetic Semiconductors and Spintronics Devices 27917. III–V-Based Magnetic Semiconductors and Spintronics Devices 281Hiro Munekata17.1 Introduction 28117.2 Hole-Mediated Ferromagnetism 28217.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Materials Characterization 28517.4 Studies in View of Spintronics Applications 29317.5 Conclusions and Prospects 296Acknowledgments 296References 29618. III-Nitride Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors 299Yi-Kai Zhou and Hajime Asahi18.1 Introduction 29918.2 Transition-Metal-Doped GaN 30018.3 Rare-Earth-Doped III-Nitrides 30318.4 Device Applications 30918.5 Summary 312References 31219. MBE Growth, Magnetic and Magneto-optical Properties of II–VI DMSs 315Shinji Kuroda19.1 II–VI DMSs Doped with Mn 31519.2 II–VI DMSs Doped with Cr and Fe 31919.3 ZnO-Based DMSs 323References 32520. Ferromagnet/Semiconductor Heterostructures and Nanostructures Grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy 329Masaaki Tanaka20.1 Introduction 32920.2 MnAs on GaAs(001) and Si(001) Substrates 33020.3 GaAs:MnAs Granular Materials: Magnetoresistive Effects and Related Devices 33720.4 Summary 345Acknowledgments 345References 34621. MBE Growth of Ge-Based Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors 349Tianxiao Nie, Jianshi Tang, and Kang L. Wang21.1 Introduction 34921.2 MBE Growth of MnxGe1−x Thin Film and Nanostructures 35121.3 Magnetic Properties of MnxGe1−x Thin Films and Nanostructures 35521.4 Electric-Field-Controlled Ferromagnetism and Magnetoresistance 35921.5 Conclusion 362Acknowledgments 362References 363Part V Challenge of MBE to New Materials and New Researches 36522. Molecular Beam Epitaxial Growth of Topological Insulators 367Xiao Feng, Ke He, Xucun Ma, and Qi-Kun Xue22.1 Introduction 36722.2 MBE Growth of Bi2Se3 Family Three-Dimensional Topological Insulators 36822.3 Defects in MBE-Grown Bi2Se3 Family TI Films 37122.4 Band Structure Engineering in Ternary Bi2Se3 Family TIs 37322.5 Magnetically Doped Bi2Se3 Family TIs 37322.6 MBE Growth of 2D TI Materials 37522.7 Summary 377References 37723. Applications of Bismuth-Containing III–V Semiconductors in Devices 381Masahiro Yoshimoto23.1 Introduction 38123.2 Growth of GaAsBi 38223.3 Properties of GaAsBi 38423.4 Applications of GaAsBi 38523.5 Applications of Other Bi-Containing Semiconductors 39023.6 Summary 391References 39224. MBE Growth of Graphene 395J. Marcelo J. Lopes24.1 Introduction 39524.2 MBE of Graphene on Metals 39824.3 MBE of Graphene on Semiconductors 39924.4 MBE of Graphene on Oxides and Other Dielectrics 40324.5 Conclusions 407Acknowledgments 408References 40825. MBE Growth and Device Applications of Ga2O3 411Masataka Higashiwaki25.1 Introduction 41125.2 Physical Properties of Ga2O3 41125.3 Ga2O3 Electronic Device Applications 41425.4 Melt-Grown Bulk Single Crystals 41425.5 Ga2O3 MBE Growth 41425.6 Transistor Applications 41925.7 Summary 421References 42126. Molecular Beam Epitaxy for Oxide Electronics 423Abhinav Prakash and Bharat Jalan26.1 Introduction 42326.2 Structure–Property Relationship in Perovskite Oxides 42326.3 Oxide Molecular Beam Epitaxy 43026.4 Recent Developments in Oxide MBE 43526.5 Outlook 44326.6 Summary 447Acknowledgments 447References 44727. In-situ STM Study of MBE Growth Process 453Shiro Tsukamoto27.1 Introduction 45327.2 The Advantages of In-situ STM Observation for Understanding Growth Mechanisms 45427.3 In-situ STM Observation of InAs Growth on GaAs(001) by STMBE System 45427.4 In-situ STM Observation of Various Growths and Treatments on GaAs Surfaces by STMBE System 45627.5 Conclusion 460References 46028. Heterovalent Semiconductor Structures and their Device Applications 463Yong-Hang Zhang28.1 Introduction 46328.2 MBE Growth of Heterovalent Structures 46528.3 ZnTe and GaSb/ZnTe Heterovalent Distributed Bragg Reflector Structures Grown on GaSb 46628.4 CdTe/MgCdTe Structure and Heterovalent Devices Grown on InSb Substrates 46828.5 Single-Crystal CdTe/MgxCd1−xTe Solar Cells 47428.6 CdTe/InSb Two-Color Photodetectors 477Acknowledgments 479References 480Index i1