Microwave Circuit Design Using Linear and Nonlinear Techniques

George D. Vendelin is Adjunct Professor at Stanford, Santa Clara, and San Jose State Universities, as well as UC-Berkeley-Extension. He is a Fellow of the IEEE and has over 40 years of microwave engineering design and teaching experience.Anthony M. Pavio, PhD, is Manager of the Phoenix Design Center for Rockwell Collins. He is a Fellow of the IEEE and was previously Manager at the Integrated RF Ceramics Center for Motorola Labs.Ulrich L. Rohde is a Professor of Technical Informatics, University of the Joint Armed Forces, in Munich, Germany; a member of the staff of other universities world-wide; partner of Rohde & Schwarz, Munich; and Chairman of the Board of Synergy Microwave Corporation. He is the author of two editions of Microwave and Wireless Synthesizers: Theory and Design.Dr.-Ing. Matthias Rudolph is Ulrich L. Rohde Professor for RF and Microwave Techniques at Brandenburg University of Technology in Cottbus, Germany and heads the low-noise components lab at the Ferdinand-Braun-Institut, Leibniz-Institut fuer Hoechstfrequenztechnik in Berlin.

• Foreword xviiPreface To The Third Edition xix1 RF/Microwave Systems 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Maxwell’s Equations 111.3 Frequency Bands, Modes, and Waveforms of Operation 131.4 Analog and Digital Signals 151.5 Elementary Functions 261.6 Basic RF Transmitters and Receivers 321.7 RF Wireless/Microwave/Millimeter Wave Applications 341.8 Modern CAD for Nonlinear Circuit Analysis 371.9 Dynamic Load Line 38References 39Bibliography 40Problems 412 Lumped and Distributed Elements 432.1 Introduction 432.2 Transition from RF to Microwave Circuits 432.3 Parasitic Effects on Lumped Elements 462.4 Distributed Elements 532.5 Hybrid Element: Helical Coil 54References 55Bibliography 57Problems 573 Active Devices 593.1 Introduction 593.2 Diodes 603.2.1 Large-Signal Diode Model 613.2.2 Mixer and Detector Diodes 653.2.3 Parameter Trade-Offs 703.2.4 Mixer Diodes 723.2.5 PIN Diodes 733.2.6 Tuning Diodes 843.2.7 Q Factor or Diode Loss 943.2.8 Diode Problems 993.2.9 Diode-Tuned Resonant Circuits 1053.3 Microwave Transistors 1103.3.1 Transistor Classification 1103.3.2 Bipolar Transistor Basics 1133.3.3 GaAs and InP Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 1273.3.4 SiGe HBTs 1413.3.5 Field-Effect Transistor Basics 1473.3.6 GaN, GaAs, and InP HEMTs 1583.3.7 MOSFETs 1653.3.8 Packaged Transistors 1823.4 Example: Selecting Transistor and Bias for Low-Noise Amplification 1863.5 Example: Selecting Transistor and Bias for Oscillator Design 1913.6 Example: Selecting Transistor and Bias for Power Amplification 1943.6.1 Biasing HEMTs 1963.6.2 Biasing HBTs 198References 200Bibliography 203Problems 2044 Two-Port Networks 2054.1 Introduction 2054.2 Two-Port Parameters 2064.3 S Parameters 2164.4 S Parameters from SPICE Analysis 2164.5 Mason Graphs 2174.6 Stability 2214.7 Power Gains, Voltage Gain, and Current Gain 2234.7.1 Power Gain 2234.7.2 Voltage Gain and Current Gain 2294.7.3 Current Gain 2304.8 Three-Ports 2314.9 Derivation of Transducer Power Gain 2344.10 Differential S Parameters 2364.10.1 Measurements 2394.10.2 Example 2394.11 Twisted-Wire Pair Lines 2404.12 Low-Noise and High-Power Amplifier Design 2424.13 Low-Noise Amplifier Design Examples 245References 254Bibliography 255Problems 2555 Impedance Matching 2615.1 Introduction 2615.2 Smith Charts and Matching 2615.3 Impedance Matching Networks 2695.4 Single-Element Matching 2695.5 Two-Element Matching 2715.6 Matching Networks Using Lumped Elements 2725.7 Matching Networks Using Distributed Elements 2735.7.1 Twisted-Wire Pair Transformers 2735.7.2 Transmission Line Transformers 2745.7.3 Tapered Transmission Lines 2765.8 Bandwidth Constraints for Matching Networks 277References 287BIBLIOGRAPHY 288PROBLEMS 2886 Microwave Filters 2946.1 Introduction 2946.2 Low-Pass Prototype Filter Design 2956.2.1 Butterworth Response 2956.2.2 Chebyshev Response 2976.3 Transformations 3026.3.1 Low-Pass Filters: Frequency and Impedance Scaling 3026.3.2 High-Pass Filters 3026.3.3 Bandpass Filters 3046.3.4 Narrow-Band Bandpass Filters 3066.3.5 Band-Stop Filters 3096.4 Transmission Line Filters 3126.4.1 Semilumped Low-Pass Filters 3156.4.2 Richards Transformation 3186.5 Exact Designs and CAD Tools 3256.6 Real-Life Filters 3266.6.1 Lumped Elements 3266.6.2 Transmission Line Elements 3276.6.3 Cavity Resonators 3276.6.4 Coaxial Dielectric Resonators 3276.6.5 Thin-Film Bulk-Wave Acoustic Resonator (FBAR) 327References 330Bibliography 330Problems 3307 Noise In Linear and Nonlinear Two-Ports 3327.1 Introduction 3327.2 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 3347.3 Noise Figure Measurements 3367.4 Noise Parameters and Noise Correlation Matrix 3387.4.1 Correlation Matrix 3387.4.2 Method of Combining Two-Port Matrix 3397.4.3 Noise Transformation Using the [ABCD] Noise Correlation Matrices 3397.4.4 Relation Between the Noise Parameter and [CA] 3407.4.5 Representation of the ABCD Correlation Matrix in Terms of Noise Parameters [7.4] 3427.4.6 Noise Correlation Matrix Transformations 3427.4.7 Matrix Definitions of Series and Shunt Element 3437.4.8 Transferring All Noise Sources to the Input 3447.4.9 Transformation of the Noise Sources 3457.4.10 ABCD Parameters for CE, CC, and CB Configurations 3457.5 Noisy Two-Port Description 3477.6 Noise Figure of Cascaded Networks 3537.7 Influence of External Parasitic Elements 3547.8 Noise Circles 3577.9 Noise Correlation in Linear Two-Ports Using Correlation Matrices 3607.10 Noise Figure Test Equipment 3637.11 How to Determine Noise Parameters 3657.12 Noise in Nonlinear Circuits 3667.12.1 Noise Sources in the Nonlinear Domain 3687.13 Transistor Noise Modeling 3717.13.1 Noise Modeling of Bipolar and Heterobipolar Transistors 3727.13.2 Noise Modeling of Field-effect Transistors 384References 390Bibliography 393Problems 3958 Small- and Large-Signal Amplifier Design 3978.1 Introduction 3978.2 Single-Stage Amplifier Design 3998.2.1 High Gain 3998.2.2 Maximum Available Gain and Unilateral Gain 4008.2.3 Low-Noise Amplifier 4078.2.4 High-Power Amplifier 4098.2.5 Broadband Amplifier 4108.2.6 Feedback Amplifier 4118.2.7 Cascode Amplifier 4138.2.8 Multistage Amplifier 4208.2.9 Distributed Amplifier and Matrix Amplifier 4218.2.10 Millimeter-Wave Amplifiers 4258.3 Frequency Multipliers 4268.3.1 Introduction 4268.3.2 Passive Frequency Multiplication 4268.3.3 Active Frequency Multiplication 4278.4 Design Example of 1.9-GHz PCS and 2.1-GHz W-CDMA Amplifiers 4298.5 Stability Analysis and Limitations 430References 435Bibliography 438Problems 4409 Power Amplifier Design 4429.1 Introduction 4429.2 Characterizing Transistors for Power-Amplifier Design 4459.3 Single-Stage Power Amplifier Design 4499.4 Multistage Design 4559.5 Power-Distributed Amplifiers 4629.6 Class of Operation 4809.6.1 Optimizing Conduction Angle 4819.6.2 Optimizing Harmonic Termination 4909.6.3 Analog Switch-Mode Amplifiers 4949.7 Efficiency and Linearity Enhancement PA Topologies 4989.7.1 The Doherty Amplifier 4999.7.2 Outphasing Amplifiers 5029.7.3 Kahn EER and Envelope Tracking Amplifiers 5059.8 Digital Microwave Power Amplifiers (class-D/S) 5149.8.1 Voltage-Mode Topology 5169.8.2 Current-Mode Topology 5219.9 Power Amplifier Stability 527References 530Bibliography 534Problems 53610 Oscillator Design 53810.1 Introduction 53810.2 Compressed Smith Chart 54410.3 Series or Parallel Resonance 54510.4 Resonators 54610.4.1 Dielectric Resonators 54710.4.2 YIG Resonators 55210.4.3 Varactor Resonators 55210.4.4 Ceramic Resonators 55610.4.5 Coupled Resonator 55810.4.6 Resonator Measurements 56410.5 Two-Port Oscillator Design 57010.6 Negative Resistance From Transistor Model 57910.7 Oscillator Q and Output Power 58610.8 Noise in Oscillators: Linear Approach 59010.8.1 Leeson’s Oscillator Model 59010.8.2 Low-Noise Design 59610.9 Analytic Approach to Optimum Oscillator Design Using S Parameters 60810.10 Nonlinear Active Models for Oscillators 62110.10.1 Diodes with Hyperabrupt Junction 62310.10.2 Silicon Versus Gallium Arsenide 62410.10.3 Expressions for gm and Gd 62510.10.4 Nonlinear Expressions for Cgs, Ggf, and Ri 62710.10.5 Analytic Simulation of I–V Characteristics 62810.10.6 Equivalent-Circuit Derivation 62810.10.7 Determination of Oscillation Conditions 63110.10.8 Nonlinear Analysis 63110.10.9 Conclusion 63210.11 Oscillator Design Using Nonlinear Cad Tools 63210.11.1 Parameter Extraction Method 63710.11.2 Example of Nonlinear Design Methodology: 4-GHz Oscillator– Amplifier 63910.11.3 Conclusion 64510.12 Microwave Oscillators Performance 64710.13 Design of an Oscillator Using Large-Signal Y Parameters 65110.14 Example for Large-Signal Design Based on Bessel Functions 65310.15 Design Example for Best Phase Noise and Good Output Power 658Requirements 658Design Steps 658Design Calculations 66210.16 A Design Example for a 350 MHz Fixed Frequency Colpitts Oscillator 666Step 1: 667Step 2: Biasing 667Step 3: Determination of the Large Signal Transconductance 66810.17 1/f NOISE 67810.18 2400 MHz MOSFET-Based Push–Pull Oscillator 68110.18.1 Design Equations 68210.18.2 Design Calculations 68710.18.3 Phase Noise 68810.19 CAD Solution for Calculating Phase Noise in Oscillators 69110.19.1 General Analysis of Noise Due to Modulation and Conversion in Oscillators 69110.19.2 Modulation by a Sinusoidal Signal 69210.19.3 Modulation by a Noise Signal 69310.19.4 Oscillator Noise Models 69510.19.5 Modulation and Conversion Noise 69610.19.6 Nonlinear Approach for Computation of Noise Analysis of Oscillator Circuits 69610.19.7 Noise Generation in Oscillators 69910.19.8 Frequency Conversion Approach 69910.19.9 Conversion Noise Analysis 69910.19.10 Noise Performance Index Due to Frequency Conversion 70010.19.11 Modulation Noise Analysis 70210.19.12 Noise Performance Index Due to Contribution of Modulation Noise 70410.19.13 PM–AM Correlation Coefficient 70510.20 Phase Noise Measurement 70610.20.1 Phase Noise Measurement Techniques 70610.21 Back to Conventional Phase Noise Measurement System (Hewlett-Packard) 72410.22 State-of-the-art 73010.22.1 Analog Signal Path 73010.22.2 Digital Signal Path 73210.22.3 Pulsed Phase Noise Measurement 73510.22.4 Cross-Correlation 73610.23 Instrument Performance 73710.24 Noise in Circuits and Semiconductors [10.74] 73810.25 Validation Circuits 74210.25.1 1000-MHz Ceramic Resonator Oscillator (CRO) 74210.25.2 4100-MHz Oscillator with Transmission Line Resonators 74510.25.3 2000-MHz GaAs FET-Based Oscillator 74710.26 Analytical Approach for Designing Efficient Microwave FET and Bipolar Oscillators (Optimum Power) 75110.26.1 Series Feedback (MESFET) 75110.26.2 Parallel Feedback (MESFET) 75810.26.3 Series Feedback (Bipolar) 76010.26.4 Parallel Feedback (Bipolar) 76310.26.5 An FET Example 76410.26.6 Simulated Results 77310.26.7 Synthesizers 77710.26.8 Self-Oscillating Mixer 77710.27 Introduction 77910.28 Large Signal Noise Analysis 78010.29 Quantifying Phase Noise 78910.30 Summary 791References 791Bibliography 795Problems 80611 Frequency Synthesizer 81211.1 Introduction 81211.2 Building Block of Synthesizer 81411.2.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillator 81411.2.2 Reference Oscillator 81411.2.3 Frequency Divider 81511.2.4 Phase-Frequency Comparators 81711.2.5 Loop Filters – Filters for Phase Detectors Providing Voltage Output 82211.3 Important Characteristics of Synthesizers 83111.3.1 Frequency Range 83111.3.2 Phase Noise 83111.3.3 Spurious Response 83111.3.4 Transient Behavior of Digital Loops Using Tri-State Phase Detectors 83111.4 Practical Circuits 84611.5 The Fractional-N Principle 84611.6 Spur-Suppression Techniques 84911.7 Digital Direct Frequency Synthesizer 85111.7.1 DDS Advantages 856References 85712 Microwave Mixer Design 85912.1 Introduction 85912.2 Diode Mixer Theory 86612.3 Single-Diode Mixers 88012.4 Single-Balanced Mixers 89012.5 Double-Balanced Mixers 90612.6 Fet Mixer Theory 93112.7 Balanced Fet Mixers 95512.8 Resistive (Reflective) Fet Mixers 96612.8.1 Switched Mode “ON” and “OFF” Resistance 96812.8.2 Loss Limit of Reflection FETs Device 97112.8.3 Conversion Loss 97212.8.4 Gain Compression and Intercept Point 97312.8.5 Design and Performance Optimization Techniques 97412.9 Special Mixer Circuits 97812.10 Mixer Noise 98812.10.1 Mixer Noise Analysis (MOSFET) 98912.10.2 Noise in Resistive GaAs HEMT Mixers 995References 1001Bibliography 1003Problems 100513 RF Switches and Attenuators 100713.1 PIN Diodes 100713.2 PIN Diode Switches 101013.3 PIN Diode Attenuators 101813.4 FET Switches 1024References 1027Bibliography 102814 Simulation of Microwave Circuits 102914.1 Introduction 102914.2 Design Types 103114.2.1 Printed Circuit Board 103114.2.2 Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits 103214.3 Design Entry 103314.3.1 Schematic Capture 103314.3.2 Board and MMIC Layout 103414.4 Linear Circuit Simulation 103514.4.1 Small-Signal AC and S-parameter Simulation 103514.4.2 Example: Microwave Filter, Schematic Based 103914.5 Nonlinear Simulation 104014.5.1 Newton’s Method 104014.5.2 Transistor Modeling 104014.5.3 Transient Simulation 104114.5.4 Example: Transient 104414.5.5 Harmonic Balance Simulation 104514.5.6 Example: Harmonic Balance, One-tone Amplifier 105014.5.7 Example: Harmonic Balance, Two-tone Amplifier 105114.5.8 Envelope Simulation 105214.5.9 Example: Envelope, Modulated Amplifier 105614.5.10 Mixing Circuit and Thermal Simulation 105714.5.11 Example: Electrothermal 105914.6 Electromagnetic Simulation 106214.6.1 Method of Moments 106314.6.2 Finite Element Method 106414.6.3 Finite Difference Time Domain 106414.6.4 Performing an EM Simulation 106514.6.5 Example: Microwave Filter, EM Based 106614.7 Design for Manufacturing 106714.7.1 Circuit Optimization 106714.7.2 Example: Optimization 106914.7.3 Component Variation 106914.7.4 Monte Carlo Analysis 107414.7.5 Example: Monte Carlo Analysis 107514.7.6 Yield Analysis and Yield Optimization 107814.8 Oscillator Design and Simulation Example 107914.8.1 Written by Ludwig Eichinger, Keysight Technologies 107914.8.2 STW Delay Line 107914.8.3 Behavioral Simulation 108014.8.4 Choosing an Amplifier 108114.8.5 DC Feed Design 108414.8.6 Wilkinson Divider Design 108514.8.7 Matching and Linear Oscillator Analysis 108514.8.8 Optimization of Loop Gain and Phase 108614.8.9 Nonlinear Oscillator Analysis 108914.8.10 1/f Noise Characterization 109014.8.11 Phase Noise Simulation 109614.8.12 Oscillator Start-up Time 109914.8.13 Layout EM Cosimulation 109914.8.14 Oscillator Design Summary 110214.9 Conclusion 1102References 1102Appendix A Derivations For Unilateral Gain Section 1105Appendix B Vector Representation of Two-Tone Intermodulation Products 1108Appendix C Passive Microwave Elements 1127Index 1148